GEO2-2274 NWI-Science, Technology & Society (GEO22274)
Institution
Universiteit Utrecht (UU)
This summary contains all four theories needed for the midterm exam. Large Technological Systems (LTS), Social Construction of Technology (SCOT), Actor-Network Theory (ANT), and Mode 2 Science
GEO2-2274 NWI-Science, Technology & Society (GEO22274)
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Science, Technology, and Society
GEO2- 2274
Large Technological Systems
Technological systems have several components, such as physical components,
organizations, scientific, and legislative components. Artifacts, physical or non-physical, of
these components interact with each other and if one thing changes, many changes will
follow as a result. Technological systems are built by system builders and their associates
and therefore the components of a technological system are social artifacts. A system
builder can construct unity from diversity with his or her vision. They are highly talented
people who can invent both hardware and organizations. As the components of a
technological system interact, they derive characteristics from the system.
Technological systems are bounded by the limits of control of artifactual and human
operators. These human operators have the crucial role to complete the feedback loop
between system performance and system goals and to correct errors in its performance. The
freedom to do this depends on the size of the system. Old systems tend to become less
adaptable.
Due to momentum, old systems do not fade away easily as they tend to exert a soft
determinism on other systems, groups, and individuals.
Inventors, manager, and organizers tend to prefer hierarchy. As a result, systems develop a
hierarchical structure. Therefore, some subsystems can also be evaluated as individual
systems to simplify comprehension and analysis. This may however create a distorted or
partial evaluation.
Technological systems involve politics as well. This is needed for growth. Also, describers or
definers of a hierarchical system can be noticeably political. Social costs are often excluded
from the analysis.
A system has inputs and outputs. These outputs are both macro (whole system) and micro
(subsystems).
Large technological systems seem to evolve in a loosely defined pattern. They tend to grow
through the following stages:
Invention
Development
Innovation
Transfer
Growth
Competition
Consolidation
These stages are not linear, but tend to overlap and have feedback loops in it. Also, this
order is not necessarily followed by all systems.
The different stages also need different kinds of entrepreneurs as they demand different
skills. During invention and development, inventor-entrepreneurs are needed to solve
critical problems. During innovation, competition, and growth, manager-entrepreneurs are
needed. During consolidation and rationalization, financer-entrepreneurs and consulting
engineers are needed to solve critical problems associated with growth and momentum.
, In the invention stage, inventions occur. These can be conservative or radical. In the
invention stage, mostly radical inventions occur as they create new systems. Conservative
inventions occur during the competition and grow stages. These inventions tend to be
described as one-man efforts, however, they are the result of many individual efforts. There
are independent inventors, who have the freedom to choose their own research and are not
restricted by determined programs. In addition, there are also professional inventors, who
can support their inventive activities over an extended period of time. Radical inventions are
often rejected by large organizations as they tend to deskill employees and because they are
technically crude and economically risky.
Inventors also published their patents. This led to publicity of commercial value. In addition,
it helped inventors to identify problem areas as the published patents alerted new areas of
problems. Inventors used their patents and intellectual property to make money.
In the development stage, the inventions are developed into an innovation. The invention is
brought from a simple environment into an increasingly complex environment through
experiments. The inventors embody their inventions with economic, political, and social
characteristics. The components of the emerging systems are also harmonized.
In the innovation stage, the technological systems clearly emerge as the invention is brought
to market. The system now consists of manufacturing, sales, and service facilities.
Independent inventors developed their own manufacturing system as the established
companies often rejected their plans. In addition, the inventors wanted production to fit heir
invention. System builders strive to increase the size of the system under their control.
Inventors-entrepreneurs tend to fade away once innovation occurs as they do not become
the manager-entrepreneurs.
In the technology transfer stage, a technology is transferred to another environment. This
can be a geographical transfer, or a technical transfer. When a technological system is
transferred, organizational components are transferred as well. The technology transfers
often cause a difference in style across regions as they all implement different variations.
These variations are often caused by political, natural, and historic factors.
In the growth stage, the system grows into a large technological system. This growth is
caused by several factors. Causes can be economies of scale, personal power, and
organizational aggrandizement. However, these explanations can mask contradictions. A
major explanation for growth is the drive for high diversity and load factors and a good
economic mix. The load factor is the ratio of average output to the maximum output during
a specific time period. A load factor does not necessarily drive growth. An increased diversity
can improve the load factor. An improved load factor can lead to improved growth.
A reverse salient is a problem that emerges as the system grows. These components in the
system have fallen behind where others have improved. As a result, they prevent the system
from growing. They can be solved with conservative inventions or enabling technologies.
Organizations and entrepreneurs tend to identify the reverse salients and solve them.
Industrial research labs proved to be very effective in conservative innovation as they are
tied to organizations with vested interests. These labs focused more on reverse salient as a
result. They falsely claimed that they were more effective than independent inventors
through public relation departments and self-promotion.
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