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LITERATUUR MEDIA ENTERTAINMENTEntertainment (Oliver)
SELECTION AND ENJOYMENT OF MEDIA ENTERTAINMENT
Entertainment uses, preferences and selection
Uses and gratifications: sees audience members as ‘active’ media users with individuals choosing to
consume media on the basis of their felt needs and the degree to which the media can successfully address
these needs.
Instrumental needs (e.g. information seeking)
Needs related to social connection
Needs related to social status
Mood management
One factor influencing entertainment selection is individual’s tendencies to arrange their environment to
manage their moods or affective states. Hedonic concerns are important motivations for certain behaviors;
select media entertainment that is successful in prolonging or intensifying positive moods and diminishing
or terminating negative moods.
Individuals aren’t necessarily aware of the motivations of their behaviors, but act in accordance with
behaviors that were successful in the past.
When someone is in a negative state it’s likely that that person avoids content that has a negative hedonic
valence (negative content) or that is high in behavioral affinity (similar context person’s state), probably
greater attraction high absorbing potential.
Enjoyment of media entertainment
What is enjoyment? It’s involves laughter, pleasantness, joy, etc. But it’s more complicated. It’s a
multifaced, nuanced and fluctuating experience.
Narrative depictions associated with enjoyment
Some enjoyment is universally (e.g. happily ever after).
Disposition theory: viewers typically use moral considerations in forming judgments about the ‘goodness’
or ‘badness’ of characters. Enjoyment is maximized when good characters experience positive outcomes
and the bad characters negative outcomes.
Normally it’s based on actions but sometimes is will be based on media story plots, viewers’ expectation,
etc. Viewers watch through that lens and are more forgiving for example.
ENTERTAINMENT AS MORE THAN PLEASURE SEEKING
Entertainment includes content contradictory to joyous and pleasant experiences. Viewers may be
particularly drawn to this form of entertainment when they are feeling sad.
Transportation and engagement
Transportation: engagement in a story or plot in a narrative world to such an extent that the reader
becomes lost in the story and is unaware of his or her immediate surroundings. It’s not necessarily related
with the experience of enjoyment.
Meaningfulness as gratification
Hedonic happiness: associated with positive affect.
Eudaimonic happiness: associated with greater meaningfulness, insight and purpose. Cognitive and
mixed affective blends associated with greater reflectiveness, insight, etc.
People don’t always have hedonic reasons for entertainment selection, it can also be eudaimonic.
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,Eudaimonic motivations can function as a trait or a state can explain why sad people watch sad movies.
Entertainment Effects: Enjoyment (Eden)
Enjoyment: a pleasurable response to media use, linked with positive emotional terms (e.g. pleasure).
Enjoyment: liking, pleasure, attraction to, joy and delight in media entertainment.
Enjoyment: 1970’s-1990s
Enjoyment contains both affective and cognitive components.
Excitation transfer theory
o Arousal from one witnessed event may linger and be misattributed to arousal from a
subsequent event.
Three-factor theory of empathy
o Describes how and when enjoyment may be experienced via empathic processes generated
through viewing the actions of and their consequences for various characters in the media.
o Reflexive (automatic)
o Learned (conditioned)
o Deliberate (mediated by cognitive thought).
Disposition theory
o Paradox of disparagement humor; viewers enjoying a type of humor that is causing pain to a
character in a joke or a humorous movie clip.
o We form ‘affective placement’ toward the characters involved in the joke.
Mood management theory
o Individuals strive to rid themselves of bad moods and strive to continue good moods and
maintain the intensity of those moods.
Enjoyment: 1990’s to the first decade of the 21st century: process models and complex characterizations-
that’s entertainment
Enjoyment: active (providing stimulation), tension-reducing (relaxation) and positive components (joy).
Enjoyment is composed of the following subsystems:
1. Physical system
a. Materiality, the pleasure of the senses.
2. Psychological system
a. Personality, emotions and cognitions.
3. Social system
a. Social coexistence and empathy.
2004: special issue of Communication Theory: exploring the concept of media enjoyment
Enjoyment: an attitude or ‘psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with
some degree of favor or disfavor.’ Enjoyment can be different for everyone.
Attitude is 3-dimensional, in terms of enjoyment:
1. Affective
a. Empathic responses to characters.
2. Cognitive component
a. Judgment of characters actions, realism, etc.
3. Behavioral
a. Intent of the use in future situations or reactions to behavioral triggers.
2
,Flow theory: enjoyment as an intrinsically motivating experience; concentration; merging action and
awareness; loss of self-consciousness; sense of self-efficacy and distortion of time. Balance between user’s
ability to cope with the challenge from the media.
Enjoyment: second decade of the 21st century to present: Functional models of enjoyment – enjoyment
as satisfaction of a need
Enjoyment as a motivational force; intrinsic motivation to engage in particular activities.
2 types of needs:
Hedonic; physiologically based, such as arousal and affect.
Nonhedonic; eudaimonic, such as expressiveness.
Enjoyment: a positive valuation stemming from unconscious processes in which all intrinsic needs are
satisfied.
Enjoyment is more difficult than simply ‘pleasure generated via specific media content’. It’s dynamic,
individual and functional signifier of need satisfaction.
3
, Uses and Gratifications: Basic Concepts (Marina Krcmar)
Focus on media use, what motivates various kinds of media use.
9 motives for media use:
1. Relaxation 4. Passing time 7. Information
2. Companionship 5. Entertainment 8. Arousal
3. Habit 6. Social interaction 9. Escape
ritualized and instrumental viewing.
Ritualized viewing: a more or less habitualized use of a medium to gratify diversionary needs or motives.
Watch more and more to consume time.
Instrumental media use: goal-directed use of media content to gratify informational needs or motives.
More involved.
Gratifications sought and obtained
Motives for use are not always gained.
Gratifications sought: viewing motives (needs)
Gratifications obtained: viewing outcomes.
Individual differences in media use
Personality is related to selective exposure of medium, of content and to content enjoyment.
Media use motives as moderators and mediators of effects
Our motives for using a particular kind of media dictate patterns of use and enhance effects.
Media use motives are also related to enjoyment and relationship outcomes instrumental
motives are positively related to greater news affinity and greater involvement.
Motives also moderate the effect of violent media on enjoyment. A motive can mediate an effect
and can be enhanced by it.
Lastly, motives influence what we consume and what we get out of exposure.
Moderating Mediating
New media technologies, and uses and gratifications reclarification
Research on the uses and gratifications of new media often find motives for use to be similar to those for
older media.
However, sometimes it’s hard because you cannot compare TV watching and playing video games. TV
motives are used as starting point, without it there is a difference between Internet use motives and TV
motives.
Uses and gratifications: rethinking a framework for future research
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