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Summary Media, ICT And Policy
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Summary of the college notes + related literature of Media, ICT & Policy, education in governance, Tilburg University
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MEDIA, ICT AND POLICY – SAMENVATTINGCollege 1 – Intro to media, ICT and policy
Policy: a more or less structured set of means and resources that are used to influence specific
societal developments and solve problems in a desired or planned way.
The separation of powers: pillars of democracy: legislature, executive, judiciary » theory of
separation of powers » Montesquieu: ‘Democratic and aristocratic states are not in their own nature
free. Political liberty is to be found only in moderate governments; and even in these it is not always
found. It is there only when there is no abuse of power. But constant experience shows us that every
man who has power is inclined to abuse it; he goes until he finds limits. Is it not strange, though true,
to say that virtue itself has need of limits? To prevent this abuse, it is necessary that, by the
arrangement of things, power shall stop power. A government may be so constituted, as no man
shall be compelled to do things which the law does not oblige him, nor forced to abstain from things
which the law permits’ – De L’Esprit des Lois.
Media: ‘Enterprises involved in reporting, printing, publishing, or broadcasting news. These entities
consist of reporters, managers, editors, producers, and owners, each of whom influence the final
product-information’ (Oswald, 2009).
Is media reporting objective? Criteria for newsworthiness: sensation, conflict, mystery, celebrity,
devi-ance, tragedy, proximity, timeliness, space. Entirely objective journalism is impossible: values,
precon-ceptions, attitudes. Big businesses: making a profit > informing the public. Crowd-funded
media: rejec-ting the dominant news cycle.
Media and the government: a) Media get their information from government sources. b)
Government sources can manipulate media. c) Regulation: liable for unsubstantiated/reckless
reporting. d) Subsi-dies: less likely to be critical.
Media have power by: a) Creating the reality in which government leaders act. b) Playing the role of
public opinion representatives and have the ability to directly contact the public. c) Giving attention
to particular issues (especially important during elections). d) Acting as a link between governmental
bureaucracies. e) (Usually) protected by ‘freedom of speech’ laws.
Media as the 4th branch of government: media needs to complement and aid the search for truth and
democratic policy making. Political process will not be fair if not scrutinized by media. Media should
not be left unchecked (if they’re left free, they will not be fair).
Oswald (2009): since the Big Media are widely considered to be the determining factor in what is
given national attention, many stories are ignored by editors until they’re covered by a member of
the Big Media. Editorial decisions ultimately become based on making a profit, rather than informing
the public. Many commentators are concerned that the wealthy and politically powerful of society
domi-nate dialogue. Critics contend that a class of ‘media elites’, composed of owners, producers,
and mana-gers, has emerged to determine which messages reach the public. Bias in the news is often
difficult to ascertain because it’s often claimed that reporters are objective, even though this is
impossible since there’s always an influence of values. Views of the media’s role as presenters of
values range from neutral transmitter to active participant. However, a commonly held view is that
the media were actu-ally intended as one of the many checks against injustice. Given the significance
of the media in our society, it’s only natural that the media are considered by several commentators
as a fourth branch of government. According to this view, the media have at least the same amount
of power in setting public policy as do the executive, judicial, and legislative branches. It could be
argues that the media have more power in setting the political agenda than the national
government. This view is entertai-ned, in part, because the media have the power to directly contact
the public, and furthermore, are protected by the First Amendment from responsibility for what they
report. However, most critics are quick to point out that the media shouldn’t be regarded as
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, interveners in government issues, but rather as intermediaries between the government and its
citizens. Regardless of the weight and meaning given to press freedom, it’s essential to remember
that the right to free speech and free press doesn’t promote fairness. Since the media couldn’t
possibly present all information to the public, the media select what the public will know. By deciding
what is ‘news’, the media create their own definition of reality for the public. More important,
however, the media determine what isn’t considered newswor-thy. The criteria for newsworthiness
are sensation, conflict, mystery, celebrity, deviance, tragedy, and proximity. However, to receive
mass media attention, an issue must also be timely. Journalists recog-nize that they’re forced to
interpret the facts of a story and inform the public based on that interpre-tation. Journalists are also
pressured for speed and brevity and reporting. Consequently, reporters often trivialize the issues,
events, and people they cover. As a result, the media over-simplify issues. The sources from which
the media get their news have perhaps the greatest impact on the news item. Although some studies
conclude that the media can change people’s attitudes, other researchers question this. Instead,
many consider the media to be most effective when they reinforce rather than challenge established
views. One study concluded that the following have a tremendous impact on public opinion about
foreign policy: 1) news commentary from anchorpersons, reporters, and editorial critics; 2) news
from experts or research studies; 3) news from the opposition party. Furthermore, criticism from the
public that the media are too biased has forced networks to focus on entertaining, rather than
educating. Journalists influence government policy-making in the following ways: 1) by creating the
reality in which government leaders act, 2) by playing the role of public opinion represent-atives, 3)
by giving attention to particular issues, 4) by acting as a link between governmental bureau-cracies.
The media have their greatest impact at the earliest stages of the policy-making process.
Government officials generally believe that the media influence how the policy agenda is set by
initia-ting stories before it’s been determined which issues will be addressed. Policy-makers often
turn to the network news as a means of determining what the public is learning. Aside from
determining which issues get placed on the political agenda, media coverage can affect whether
policies get adopted and implemented. Unfortunately, good news is not news. Since most news
coverage of political issues and events is skeptical, government policy-makers become constantly
aware of how their issues will be reported. This, in turn, can affect how a proposal is presented. The
media can provide the public with a court case different from the court-room version by presenting
the evidence in a biased fashion or stressing sensational aspects. Judges often utilize a wide
assortment of mechanisms in an effort to ensure a fair trail » 6th amendment: right to a fair trial by
an impartial jury. Government officials have learned how to manipulate the images of issues and
events before they even reach the media. Govern-ment typically ‘manages’ the flow of information
through the means of public relations. Some critics believe that the media are manipulated by
government officials to further public opinion in the latter’s favor. Defamation laws allow public
figures and officials to hold the media liable for unsubstantiated and reckless reporting. As a
consequence, the media may be more cautious, and thus less effective, as a result of their efforts to
avoid lawsuits. Technological advances in communication are transforming the political process.
Whether, at any particular time, the government is influencing the media or the media are
influencing the government, public policy is affected.
Critique: ‘I have never quite grasped the worry about the power of the press. After all, it speaks with
a thousand voices. In constant dissonance. It has no power to arrest you, draft you, tax you, or even
make you fill out a form, except a subscription form if you’re agreeable. It is the power of
government that has increased’. Eric Sevareid (CBS). Media reinforces rather than challenges
established views.
Is media reporting objective? Who decides what is news and what makes something ‘newsworthy’?
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