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Summary of all obligated articles of media entertainment. (22 articles)
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Entertainment effects: enjoyment – Allison EdenEnjoyment can be defined as a pleasurable response to media use. The early focus of mass media
research was on the negative effects of entertainment.
Excitation transfer theory: arousal from one witnessed event may liner and be misattributed to arousal
from a subsequent event. If the ending is positive for the character, the residual arousal will be associated
with positive affect and labeled enjoyment.
Three-factor theory of empathy: Zillmann combined past conceptualizations of empathy as a reflexive,
learned or deliberate process, by suggesting that empathic responses stem from all three types of
experiences.
(Affective) disposition theory: The central role of disposition toward characters in generating enjoyment
from entertainment experiences is the focus.
“Paradox” of disparagement humor: viewers clearly enjoyed a type of humor that was very obviously
causing paint to a character in a joke or a humorous movie clip.
- When we overhear a joke containing disparaging humor we form “affective dispositions” toward
the characters involved in the joke.
1. The more intense the negative disposition toward the disparaged agent or entity, the greater the
magnitude of the humor response;
2. The more intense the positive disposition toward the disparaged agent or entity, the smaller the
magnitude of the humor response.
Mood management theory: most often combined with selective exposure processes in media research in
order to explain why people choose certain types of media when they are in specific mood states.
1. Individuals strive to rid themselves of bad moods or to diminish the experienced intensity of
those moods;
2. Individuals strive to perpetuate good moods and maintain the intensity of those moods.
Entertainment: having active, tension-reducing and positive components.
- Active components of entertainments: providing simulation or suspense.
- Tension-reducing components: providing relaxation and diversity.
- Positive components: leading to joy and pleasure.
Enjoyment is composed of the following subsystems:
- Physical system: includes materiality, existence, the pleasure of the senses, manifested for
instance in the use of physical abilities or in the experience of motor or physical activities.
- Psychological system: includes personality, emotions and cognitions, the pleasure of emotions in
mood management, or personal knowledge gained form interacting with media.
- Social system: is rooted in social coexistence and includes empathy, feeling with and for others.
These result in the “reception phenomena” of enjoyment.
Liking may refer to reactions to a media message, whereas enjoyment is a more holistic experience, which
contains both situational and contextual elements such as social viewing.
Enjoyment as an attitude: a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity
with some degree of favor or disfavor.
- Affective components: empathetic responses to characters, as well as on affective states elicited
through the narrative.
- Cognitive components: judgements of characters’ actions, on story assessments, on perceived
realism, or on relevance and similarity to the viewer.
, - Behavioral components: observed by studying the viewing intent of the user in future situations,
or reactions to behavioral triggers.
Enjoyment: “pleasant experiential state” with physiological, cognitive and affective components.
Flow theory: enjoyment as an intrinsically motivating experience with the following attributes: intense
and focused concentration, merging of action and awareness, loss of self-consciousness, a sense of self-
efficacy and distortion of time.
- Sherry described the media flow experience primarily as a result of optimal balance between the
challenge presented by the media and a user’s ability to successfully cope with this challenge.
Hedonic needs: psychological based, such as arousal and affect. leads to enjoyment.
Eudaimonic needs: such as introspection and expressiveness. leads to appreciation.
Satisfaction of both higher and lower order needs could lead to the experience of enjoyment.
Enjoyment: a positive valuation stemming from unconscious processes in which all intrinsic needs are
satisfied (or at least those needs which are dominantly salient) through intuitive response, and there is no
unsatisfied need to impede the evaluation of the experience as positive.
Entertainment: providing various affective and psychological benefits to the user.
Uses and gratifications: basic concepts – Marina Krcmar
Uses and gratifications theory: by understanding why we choose the media we do and how we use it,
researchers can gain a better understanding of the entire media use process from selective exposure to
media outcomes and effects.
- It seeks to understand “the social and psychological origins of needs which generate expectations
of the mass media and other sources which lead to differential patterns of media exposure (or
engagement in other activities) resulting in needs gratification and other consequences, perhaps
mostly unintended ones.
Early research in the uses and gratifications tradition attempted to identify individuals’ motives for media
use. Additional research considered the relationship between those motives to view and selective
exposure to certain content types. Additional research examined the link between various motives and
affinity for a media.
- 9 basic motives of TV use (Rubin): relaxation, companionship, habit, passing time, entertainment,
social interaction, information, arousal and escape.
- 3 motives for watching TV (Lin): surveillance, escape/companionship and personal identity.
2 overarching viewing motives (Abelman & Atkin): ritualistic and instrumental.
o Ritualized: a more or less habitualized use of a medium to gratify diversionary needs or
motives.
o Instrumental: a goal-directed use of media content to gratify informational needs or
motives.
Gratification sought: which may be thought of as viewing motives. Needs
Gratification obtained: which may be thought of as viewing outcomes. Outcomes
Criticisms:
- The somewhat chaotic production of typologies that focus om motives, uses and functions of
media.
- Research subsequent to the early conceptualizations lacks synthesis.
- Some of the assumptions of the uses and gratifications approach have also come under fire.
o Motives for media use are not always accessible to viewers (nonconscious).
, Research into the relationship between individual differences and media exposure categories:
1. Personality to exposure to media;
2. Personality to exposure to media content;
3. Personality to viewing motives content.
Personality does seem to be related to selective exposure of medium, of content, and to content
enjoyment.
Uses and gratification approach argues that media use motives as moderators of effects. Our motives for
using a particular kind of media may not only dictate patterns of use, as argued, but also enhance or
mitigate effects. Thus, motives influence not only what we consume but also what we get out of
exposure.
- Some researchers have proposed that media use motives may in fact mediate effects.
- A motive can mediate an effect but, in turn, be enhanced by it.
Taken together, these findings suggest that the reason we use media – in fact, the motivation to use it in
the first place – may in fact be the mechanism by which we are affected, whether that effect is political
knowledge or sexual attitudes.
Recent research suggests the personality of a player affects how much violence is enacted in a given video
game. Game play motives have a three-factor structure: escapism, enjoyment and competition or skill.
- 3 motives for using the internet (Rubin): surveillance; escape, companionship or identity; and
entertainment.
- 5 motives for using Internet (Papacharissi and Rubin): interpersonal utility, convenience, passing
time, information seeking and entertainment.
o (Korgaonkar and Wolin) + 2: interactive and economic control.
People use computers to gratify:
- Interpersonal needs: inclusion, affection, escape, control, relaxation and pleasure.
- Mediated needs: information, entertainment, habit, passing time and social interaction.
- Other needs: meeting people and time shifting.
Sundar and Limperos suggest that gratifications of media, old and new, can be grouped by the modality of
the media:
- Agency-based gratification: gratification of building community or being an expert.
- Interactivity-based gratifications: gratifications of activity and responsiveness.
- Navigability-based gratifications: browsing, fun.
Mood management theory – Leonard Reinecke
Mood management theory (theory of affect-dependent stimulus arrangement): is founded on the basic
assumption that individuals are motivated to terminate or alleviate negative affective states and to
preserve and intensify positive affect.
Media exposure offers the opportunity of symbolic stimulus arrangement via mediated representations of
environments, narration or social interaction.
A necessary precondition for the learning processes proposed in mood management theory is a
contingency between message characteristics and the modifications of prevailing moods.
Mood management theory focuses on four distinct dimensions that characterize media messages in terms
of their mood-altering effects:
- Excitatory potential: refers to the effect of media messages on the arousal level of media user.
- Absorption potential: ability to capture the attention of media users and thus to suppress the
affect-maintaining cognitive elaboration and rumination on the origins of a given mood state.
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