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Summary 1.8 Human learning (all problems included)
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All problems of human learning complete (educational psychology)
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Problem 1OMROAD ARTICLE
Memory Information processing theorists use the term memory in two different ways:
Sometimes they use it to refer to a process of saving information for a period of time. In this sense, it’s almost
a synonym for learning, except with a greater emphasis on the ability to recall the information at a later time.
On other occasions, theorists use it to refer to a particular part of the human memory system where acquired
information is “located”—for instance, in working memory or long-term memory.
Storage In their early, computer-analogy days, information processing theorists began to use such computer
lingo as storage, encoding, and retrieval. Storage is the process of “putting” new information in memory.
Encoding As people store information in memory, they usually modify it in some way; this process of encoding
often helps them store the information more easily. Sometimes encoding involves changing the form of the
information.
For example a combination lock for which the combination was 22–8–14. I quickly learned the first two
numbers by encoding them as “the day and month of my birthday.” In this case, I changed numerical
information into a verbal form.
Encoding may also involve adding to new information using one’s existing knowledge of the world. Another
encoding process is one of simplifying new information—by remembering the overall meaning or gist of a
situation rather than the specific details of what happened. For example, you might recall that the author of
one of your textbooks mentioned her birthday but not remember the actual date.
Retrieval The process by which people “find” information they’ve previously stored. Retrieval is quite easy in
some cases but more difficult in others. An alternative hypothesis, of course, is that information retrieval is
occurring but isn’t resulting in a behavior change.
WOOFLOOK ARTICLE
Cognitive views of memory
It is information processing explanations. The human mind takes in information, performs operations on it to
change its form and content, stores the information, retrieves it when needed, and generates responses to it,
like a computer.
Stimuli from the environment (input) go into the sensory registers, one for each sensing modality (seeing,
hearing, tasting, etc.).
From Sensory register, some information is encoded and moves to short-term memory.
Short-term memory: holds information very briefly, combines it with information from long-term memory,
and with enough effort, moves some information into long-term memory storage. It is also responsible for
generating responses or output.
Limitations
This model is helpful, but incomplete: in the model, information moved through the system mostly in one way,
from sensory registers to long-term memory, but research indicated many more interactions and connections
among the processes.
,The model could not explain how out-of-awareness memories or knowledge could influence learning or how
several cognitive processes could happen simultaneously—like many small computers operating in parallel.
A more recent cognitive science information processing model retains some of the features of the old
approach, but emphasizes the role of working memory, attention, and the interactions among the elements of
the system
OMROD ARTICLE
Dual store model
helpful to think of the dual-store model as similar to an storage system you have for the thousands of mail and
e-mail items you get each year:
You probably discard some items (e.g., new credit card offers, e-mail spam) as soon as you see what they are;
these things get no further than the “sensory
register” of your storage
Others you have to deal it briefly like paying the bills-
you process them for a short time in your system’s
“working memory.”
Other items might be important enough that you
want to put them in some sort of “long-term
memory”
William James: proposed that human memory has
three components: an after-image, a primary
memory, and a secondary memory. James’s model was largely ignored
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model: working memory and long-term memory are distinctly different entities
Challenges to the Dual-store model
Are working memory and long-term memory really different?
1)research studies have cast doubt on the idea that the recency effect necessarily reflects the use of a working
memory separate from long-term memory some psychologists have suggested that the serial learning curve
can be explained as easily by a single-store model as by a dual-store model. One possible explanation is that
items in a list are easier to remember if they’re distinctive in some way. Items near the end of the list might be
more memorable because of their positions: A learner may specifically identify a word as “the last one” or “the
next-to-last one”. A second possibility is simply that forgetting occurs rapidly at first and then slowly tapers off
—a pattern that has been observed for many different species and many different tasks. From this perspective,
,the recency effect may be the result of the fact that the last items of a list haven’t yet undergone that rapid
decay. 2)Sometimes these individuals show an impairment of one kind of memory without a corresponding loss
of function in the other, To some degree, working memory processes and long-term memory processes do
seem to depend on different parts of the brain Is conscious thought necessary for Long-term memory storage?
3)Some kinds of information—once they’ve captured a person’s attention—seem to be automatically stored in
longterm memory even if not specifically selected for further processing
4)complex problem is sometimes better solved when it remains outside of working mem- ory’s limited-capacity
limelight for a while. The products of such nonconscious thinking are often implicit and hard to put a finger on.
For instance, people might describe them as “intuition” or a “gut feeling” they can’t easily explain
Sensory Memory
Holds incoming information long enough for it to undergo very preliminary cognitive processing. Stimuli from
the environment (sights, sounds, smells, etc.) constantly bombard our body’s mechanisms for seeing, hearing,
tasting, smelling, and feeling. Sensory memory is the initial processing that transforms these incoming stimuli
into information so we can make sense of them. Other names for the sensory memory are sensory buffer,
iconic memory (for images), and echoic memory (for sounds).
The capacity of sensory memory is very large, and it can take in more information than we can possibly handle
at once.
Duration: The sensory memory held information about the stimuli very briefly after the actual stimulus had left.
The vast amount of sensory information is fragile in duration. It lasts less than 3 seconds.
Information remains in the sensory register for only a very brief time, but measuring its exact duration is
difficult. A key problem in studying the sensory register’s duration is that when we ask people to report or in
some other way process something they’ve stored there, the information automatically moves on to working
memory and so is no longer in the place where we want to
study it!
Two factors probably account for the rapid disappearance of
information from the sensory register : interference (New
information coming in effectively replaces—and thereby
erases—the information already there), decay (even without
new input, existing information in the sensory register seems
to quickly fade away). Important information is often going to
be processed sufficiently that it enters working memory.
Unimportant information, like junk mail and e-mail spam, is
probably best thrown away
The information content of sensory memory resembles the
sensations from the original stimulus. Visual sensations are
coded briefly as images, almost like photographs. Auditory
sensations are coded as sound patterns, similar to echoes. It
may be that the other senses also have their own codes. Thus,
for a second or so, a wealth of data from sensory experience
remains intact. In these moments, we have a chance to select
and organize information for further processing. Perception
and attention are critical at this stage
Forms of storage Information: appears to be stored in the sensory register in basically the same form in which
it has been sensed: Visual input is stored in a visual form, auditory input in an auditory form
Perception
Definition: The process of detecting a stimulus and assigning meaning to it.
, This meaning is constructed based on both physical representations from the world and our existing
knowledge.
The process from sensory input to recognized objects probably goes through several stages.
First phase: features are analyzed, to give a rough sketch. This feature analysis has been called data-driven or
bottom-up processing because the stimulus must be analyzed into features or components and assembled into
a meaningful pattern “from the bottom up.”
E.g.: a capital letter A consists of two relatively straight lines joined at a 45-degree angle and a horizontal line
through the middle. Whenever we see these features, or anything close enough, we are on the road to
recognizing an A. This explains how we are able to read words written in other people’s handwriting, and why
humans, but not computer bots, can fill CAPTCHAS.
Second phase: As perception continues, the features are organized into patterns. Psychologists that use this
tool are Gestalt theorists. Gestalt, which means “pattern” or “configuration” in German, refers to people’s
tendency to organize sensory information into patterns or relationships. They explain how we “see” patterns
in the world around us.
If all perception relied only on feature analysis and Gestalt principles, learning would be very slow
Third phase: the features and patterns detected are combined in light of the context of the situation and our
existing knowledge- called top-down, or conceptually driven processing.
to recognize patterns rapidly, in addition to noting features, we use context and what we already know about
the situation—our knowledge about words or pictures or the way the world generally operates.
E.g.: you would not have seen the earlier marks as the letter A if you had no knowledge of the Latin alphabet.
So, what you know also affects what you are able to perceive
Moving Information to Working Memory: The Role of Attention
If we want to move information from the sensory register into working memory we must pay attention to it.
For example, as you read this book, you’re probably attending to only a small part of the visual input your eyes
are receiving from your environment. In the same way, you don’t worry about most of the sounds you hear at
any particular time; you select only certain ones to pay attention to. In essence, information that a learner
pays attention to moves on to working memory, whereas information that isn’t attended to may be lost from
the memory system.
One reason people don’t remember something they’ve seen or heard, then, is that they never really paid
attention to it.
The lecture might reached your sensory register but wasn’t sufficiently processed to move on to your working
memory. Even when people pay attention to a particular stimulus, they don’t necessarily attend to its most
important aspects. Such is especially true for complex stimuli, such as reading materials and Internet websites
Factors Influencing Attention
Motion: Moving objects are more likely to capture attention than stationery ones
Size: large letters and that advertisers take advantage of when they put potentially unenticing
information in fine print
Intensity: More intense stimuli—bright colors and loud noises, for instance—attract attention
Novelty: Stimuli that are novel or unusual in some way tend to draw people’s attention
Incongruity: Objects that don’t make sense within their context tend to capture people’s attention
Social cues: People are more likely to pay attention to things they see others looking at and reacting to
Emotion: Stimuli with strong emotional associations attract attention
Personal significance: the meaning and relevance people find in an object or event—can both capture
and maintain attention
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