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University of Leiden: Notes on Gateway to Global Affairs
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College notes for the course Gateway to Global Affairs for the minor Global Affairs at Leiden University.
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Notes on Gateway to GlobalAffairs
Lecture I, 31st of August:
Diplomacy: concerned with the management of relations between states and between states
and other actors.
The role of foreign affairs in domestic issues has increased over time.
Three grading moments: put in a discussion question referring to an article of the Economist,
writing a speech for an official and writing a policy paper.
Lecture II, 7th of August:
Multilateralism: an approach of involving many actors and institutions via negotiations in
trying to forge common policies. It requires cooperation which means that parties have to go
beyond their own positions in order to find convergence.
There are two types of multilateralism: international mode, where states retain their
sovereignty, and supranational mode, where states relinquish some of their sovereignty in
return for stability and prosperity.
Multilateralism can be used as an instrument by larger states to achieve some degree of
hegemony, or functionally by smaller states to restrain more powerful states.
Multilateralism is however dependent on power relations. As these are currently shifting in
the new global order, new rising powers want international institutions to reflect their interests
and values. Hence, multilateralism could weaken, collapse or change in terms of rules and
institutions.
The corona crisis is transnational in nature (as the virus does not stop at borders), but the
response of states is foremost national. International cooperation is however needed to
effectively tackle the crisis, and national policies are partly determined by international
factors. International institutions determine the effect of secondary and tertiary events, like
mass unemployment.
Multilateralism occurs after historically catastrophic events, when it receives adequate
momentum.
Theories of multilateralism are closely linked to liberalism, which emphasises
interdependence between the state and other non-state actors in international politics. This
interdependence is complex of nature due to interconnections between policy issues and
global developments. Hence, unilateralism does not suffice.
, Hegemonic stability: international order shaped by a hegemon that sets up institutions and
norms that foster cooperation and diffuse reciprocity which also benefits the hegemon.
R. Keohane defined multilateralism as cooperation of more than two states based on diffuse
reciprocity (i.e. cooperation aimed at the long-run for joint gains, as opposed to direct tit-for-
tat deals, whilst J. Ruggie based multilateralism on generalised principles of conduct all
parties to stick to, which are often linked to international organisation.
This diffuse reciprocity is based on soft power like international law and international
organisations that stress generalised principles of conduct, emphasise norms, and is legitimacy
oriented.
Development: selective multilateralism occurs, which compromises of coalitions of the
willing that are output-oriented (for which they use hard power). It focuses on tit-for-that
gains instead of joint gains in the long-run.
These two forms of multilateralism can be combined, leading to effective multilateralism.
Here, the need for multilateralism to lead to measurable impact and outcomes is
acknowledged, but the importance of internal law and international organisations as well.
Consequently, international organisations are strengthened. They stem from
institutionalised cooperation and functionalism and have the following role:
o IO’s help states to overcome uncertainty and transaction costs, particularly in solving
specific policy issues.
o IO’s facilitate the exchange of information and generate transparency.
o IO’s facilitate inter-state bargains and compliance in order to reach collective goals
(ex. via international law).
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