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Models of leadership
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lecture notes of the course Leadership and Organization
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S2: Lord → three wavesEvery person has leadership and followership traits. Leadership reflects personality in action under
group conditions. Both leaders and followers are necessary for leadership.
Mainly situational factors determine whether someone is seen as a leader.
Wave 1: leadership behavior and follower attitudes (social behaviors)
Initiating Structure clarifying roles, specifying rules and procedures
Consideration being friendly and supportive to followers. Positive attitudes and outcomes
Leadership motivation and status ambition motives important to predictions of career progression. This
pattern of motive moderate to high on power, low need for affiliation, and high self-control.
Wave 2: Extensions and Limitations of Leadership Style Approaches (cognitive explanations)
Behavioral and Social-Cognitive Approaches
Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs) effects of raters implicit knowledge structures on ratings of
leadership behavior. ILTs did not depend on cognitive complexity of raters and were stable over time.
Warmth information about intentions (consideration)
Competence capability to enact intentions (initiating structure)
Universal dimensions of social perceptions, underlying Consideration and Initiating Structure.
Social-cognitive theory emphasizing role of categorization processes in social sense-making.
Perceivers may automatically categorize leaders in their implicit theories, using underlying structure of
these categories to generate behavioral ratings.
Leadership perceptions reflect a match to category prototype, attributes associated with leadership
Behavioral ratings reflect how prototypical items are to leader’s category.
The better the match of employee’s perceptions of their actual leader’s profile to their ILT, the better
quality their exchange was with their respective leader.
Leader categorization theory useful model of leadership perception. Nature of social categories such
as leadership is dynamic, changing with specific context, and depending on attributes of leader being
rated (race, gender, and ethnicity). Groups develop unique prototypes affecting social perceptions and
providing behavioral norms when members strongly identify with a group.
Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler combination of situational factors in the form of task structure, leader-member relations, and
leader position power moderated relation of Least Preferred Coworker of task VS interpersonal
leadership orientation to outcomes. There is no best leadership style, but different situations.
Kerr & Jermier leadership substitutes or neutralizers. Relation of leader behavior measures to
outcomes would be reduced when substitutes or neutralizers were present.
Wave 3: An Expanding Focus for Leadership (individuals, teams and leaders as agents of change)
Leader emergence being perceived as a leader. A within-group phenomenon. Extraversion and
conscientiousness most important.
Leadership effectiveness leader’s ability to influence others in helping a group achieve its goals.
Comparison with leaders in other groups and a between-groups phenomenon.
Leadership perceptions often basis for effectiveness ratings and for emergence.
,Incorporating outcomes as follower job satisfaction, motivation, organization performance, leader
satisfaction, performance, and effectiveness strong effects for Consideration and Initiating Structure.
Transformational and Charismatic Leadership
Transformational leadership theory exceptional performance created by sense of mission and new
ways of thinking and learning. Activating followers’ general values and social identities. Charisma and
Consideration components distinguished top VS ordinary performers. Higher rated on internal locus of
control and more likely to attribute getting things done to own influence versus external contingencies.
Transactional contingent reward leaders specify goals and reward followers for task completion.
Both leadership styles produced similar positive relationships with performance outcomes.
Collective, relational, and individual identities recently have been shown to be an antecedent of
transformational, Consideration, and abusive behaviors, respectively.
Dual effects transformational leaders can increase feelings of empowerment and dependence in
their followers. Followers’ personal identification with leader mediated relationship of transformational
leadership with higher levels of dependence. Social identification with team mediated relationship with
empowerment. Follower reactions important for leadership processes. Workers with lower levels of self-
efficacy for completing their job tasks, benefited more from transformational leadership, when
experiencing higher levels of job autonomy.
Transformational leaders scored higher on moral reasoning, provide greater social support and
identification, with higher levels of positive emotions exhibited by and reduced stress among followers.
Those who perceived leader as worthy role model exhibited prosocial behaviors with coworkers.
Prosocial components related to higher leader/follower value congruence among followers, offering
evidence for transformative effect of these leaders. Followers ascribed more charisma to leaders who
exhibited more sacrifice and less self-benefit, producing followers with greater commitment to and
support of their leader. Higher ratings of transformational leadership positively predicted affective
commitment to ongoing change, and was stronger when change had a more direct impact on followers’
work. Transformational leadership could be developed to enhance follower attitudes and performance.
Trust showed positive relationships to outcomes including follower job performance, OCB, turnover
intentions, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. In terms of antecedents, trust in leadership
positively predicted by both leaderships, social justice, participative decision making, POS, and
propensity to trust, and negatively predicted by unmet expectations.
Charisma emotional form of communal relationship
Leader-member exchange theory (LMX)
LMX focus on relationship developed between leaders and followers. LMX is unique in adopting a
jointly determined leader-follower relationship as central construct.
Life cycle perspective of LMX development begins with Stranger phase basic and transactional
exchanges between leader and follower; Acquaintance developing trust as foundation
to exchange; Maturity relationship based in mutual trust, respect, and obligation. Positive
relationships between LMX quality and OCBs, with stronger effects for individually targeted OCBs.
Expectations, perceived similarity, and liking between leader and follower assessed in first 5 days in
tenure predicted LMX ratings as much as 6 months later. Aspects of personality in forms of member
extraversion and leader agreeableness influence initial levels of LMX, while leader and member
performance influence its development of its relationship over time.
Followers’ POS positively associated with organizational commitment ratings. Followers’ LMX ratings
positively associated with supervisor ratings of follower extra- and in-role behavior.
,Gender
Women more transformational than men, especially in building supportive relationships with followers,
and women more transactional in their use of rewards as incentives.
Team leadership
Roots of team leadership in functional leadership perspective leaders should act in ways providing
teams with what they need when needed for successful collective action. Leadership responsibilities
include ensuring team clear direction, providing enabling structure and context, coaching, and assuring
adequate resources.
Transformational leadership influences team performance by facilitating emergence of more positive
team motivational states, such as team potency, cohesion, and trust.
Multilevel leadership Influence of leadership on team and individual level processes and outcomes,
such as differential effects of leadership climate on team members and collective self-efficacy.
Shared leadership leadership role can shift among team members being shared over time,
representing distribution of functional leadership roles in groups. Different individuals enact leader and
follower roles at different points in time. Team members share knowledge and influence with each
other over time and “lead each other toward goal achievement”.
S3: Johnson → leader identity of transformational, Consideration and abusive
leadership (3wk)
Leadership social process of exerting influence over the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others.
Leaders exert influence by altering follower identity, or the way in which followers define themselves
relative to others. Effective leaders motivate their followers to pursue shared interests by activating
followers’ group-based identities. When group-based identities are salient, there is greater cooperation
among followers, and intragroup diversity is leveraged benefitting the group. At the same time, extent
to which leaders and followers embody group-based identities impacts influence of leaders. Leaders
who adopt group-based identities engage in fewer self-serving behaviors than those who adopt
individual-based identities. Leaders’ group-based identities also spill over to their followers, which in
turn related to higher levels of satisfaction, job performance, and citizenship behavior.
Effectiveness of leader behavior operates through and contingent on follower identity.
Followers recognize and reward consistent positive leader behaviors because consistent actions are a
reflection of leaders’ core values. Leader behavioral consistency reduces uncertainty about leader-
follower interactions and organizational environment.
Identity how people define themselves relative to others:
1. Collective based on group membership. Communal
motives underlying collective identity consistent with group-
focused behaviors characterizing transformational
leadership. Internalizing values and norms of their group,
more effectively owing to their personal alignment with
group characteristics.
2. Relational dyadic connections with specific person.
Motivated to act benefitting their relationship partners (considering followers’ needs and
offering social support). Behaviors consistent with Consideration
Relational leaders motivated to form high-quality relationships with their subordinates.
3. Individual based on one’s separateness from others. Suited to exercise power to visibly
distinguish themselves from followers, and behaviors enhancing power distance often abusive.
, Emphasize their personal uniqueness, reducing their group prototypicality.
Identity has both trait and state aspects.
Trait levels of identity predict general propensities to engage in certain behavior (stable).
State levels better at predicting momentary behavior (development).
Transformational and Consideration behaviors effective and satisfying (similar). Consistent
transformational and Consideration behaviors, result in higher ratings of leader effectiveness because
followers attribute these positive behaviors to stable qualities in leaders viewing them as being genuine.
Abusive behaviors are stressful and destructive. Consistent, day-to-day abuse is attributed to stable
personal factors, leading to lower ratings of leader effectiveness.
Leader collective identity positively related to average transformational
and Consideration behavior. Leader relational identity positively related to
average Consideration behavior. Leader individual identity predicted
average abusive behavior.
Individual identity-abuse relations moderated by other identity levels.
Individual identity had stronger relations with abusive behavior when
collective identity was weak versus strong.
Relations of collective and individual leader identity with perceived
effectiveness fully mediated by transformational and abusive behaviors.
Abusive acts likely when leaders have strong individual identity paired
with weak collective identity. Individual identity linked to
counterproductive and self-serving, it also warrants attention as a
trigger of destructive interpersonal behavior and escalating incivility.
Knowing what behaviors have biggest impact can help people maximize
perceived effectiveness as leaders. Performing transformational and
refraining from abusive behaviors offer larger payout than engaging in Consideration behaviors.
Training transformational and Consideration behaviors has more likelihood of success when leaders
have complementary collective and relational identities, respectively.
S3: Miscenko → leader identity development (2mnd)
Leader identity a critical component of leader development process, thought to motivate individuals to
seek out developmental experiences and opportunities to practice relevant leadership behaviors.
Observable, behavioral level of leadership skills supported by deeper level mental structures, such as a
leader’s self-perception.
Leader identity individual's self-definition based on relatively stable set of meanings. Leader identity
develops along four dimensions: (a) meaning, (b) strength, (c) integration, and (d) level. Predicted by
extraversion.
Meaning definition of leadership held by an individual.
Strength extent to which an individual identifies as a leader.
Self-perception theory individuals draw inferences about identity from perceptions of their behavior.
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