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Summary of the fifth edition of Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences by Charles Stangor.
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Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences by Charles StangorSummary of the 5th edition
For the course Research Methods: Theory and Ethics (PSBA2-08)
Femke van Rijn
Chapter 1
Introduction to Research
Behavioral research is to discover how people perceive the world, think, feel, change over time,
learn, make decisions, and interact with others, through empirical research (systematic collection
and analysis of data).
There are many cognitive and motivational biases that can influence our perceptions and lead to the
wrong conclusions. Hindsight bias = the tendency to think we could have predicted something when
we learn the outcome of an event.
The scientific method is the set of assumptions, rules and procedures that scientists use to conduct
research. It demands that the procedures are objective (free from bias and emotion), based on
previous research, and replicable. It results in an accumulation of scientific knowledge, through the
reporting of research and the addition to and modification of these reported findings through further
research by other scientists.
Values are personal statements that cannot be either true or false (and thus not be proven or
disproven), and facts are objective statements determined to be accurate through empirical study.
The distinction is not always clear, since there are often multiple ways to interpret data, especially in
the behavioral sciences. The goal of science is to be objective, but values are still important to make
decisions about what to study, how and whom to use.
Research report = a document that presents scientific findings using a standardized written format (it
is mostly APA in the behavioral sciences). The sections Introduction and Discussion are relatively
subjective (they involve questions like which topics are important and how the data should be
interpreted), while Method and Results are completely objective (they describe the procedures and
statistical analyses).
Basic research answers fundamental questions about behavior (providing underlying principles).
Applied research investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provide solutions to
everyday problems (for example program evaluation research to study the effectiveness of
programs). The distinction between these two types of research is not clear-cut and they can inform
each other.
A research design is the specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze and interpret data.
There are 3 basic designs used in behavioral research.
1. Descriptive research (assessing the current state of affairs)
a. Surveys and interviews
b. Naturalistic observation = the observation of everyday events
c. Qualitative research is focused on observing and describing events as they occur,
with the goal of capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope
of discovering phenomena that might have been missed with more formal measures.
Quantitative research uses more formal measures like questionnaires and
systematic observation, which are designed to be subjected to statistical analyses
and are more objective than qualitative studies.
d. Descriptive research provides an understanding of what is currently happening, but it
only provides a static picture.
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, 2. Correlational research (seeking relationships among variables)
a. Variable = an attribute that can have different values among people, places or times
b. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
and indicates the correlation between two variables.
c. Correlational research can be used to predict future events with predictor variables.
It cannot be used to identify causal relationships (direction of causation, third
variables).
3. Experimental research (understanding the causes of behavior)
a. Experimental research involves the creation or manipulation of a
situation/experience, and measures the effects on thoughts/feelings/behaviors. It is
designed to create equivalence between the different groups before the experiment
begins, so that any differences found can only be attributed to the effects of the
manipulation.
b. It has the ability to draw conclusions about causation. However, a lot of important
social questions cannot be studied experimentally because of ethical issues.
Converging operations = using more than one technique to study the same thing, with the hope that
all produce similar findings.
Chapter 2
Developing the Research Hypothesis
Getting ideas on what to study:
- Solving real-world problems
- Using observation and intuition
o Inductive method = getting ideas about the relationships among variables by
observing specific facts
- Using existing research
o This method is more likely to make a contribution to science than research without
an existing explanation, by drawing links with other research
o Finding limiting conditions of previous research
o Explaining conflicting findings
Once you have an idea for your research, you should do a literature research on previous studies in
order to prevent duplication, avoid problems others had and provide ways to measure your
variables. Primary sources contain complete descriptions of the collected data and data analyses and
usually appear in professional journals. Secondary sources contain summaries or interpretations of
research reports.
Literature search is most efficient when it starts at a broad, general level (secondary sources) and the
progresses to more specific levels (primary sources), and if the research starts with the newest
available information and uses this to progress backward to previous research. Abstracts are
summaries of journal articles or book chapters, and reading these will give you a basic idea of
whether the material will provide the information you are interested in.
Laws are principles that are general and apply to all situations, there are very few universally
accepted laws in the behavioral sciences. A theory is a set of principles that explain and predict some
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, relationships within a domain. Deductive method = using a theory to generate specific ideas for
developing your own research.
Components of a good theory:
1. They are general (they summarize many different outcomes)
2. They are parsimonious (they provide the simples possible account of those outcomes)
3. They provide ideas for future research
4. They are falsifiable (the variables can be adequately measured)
Theories in which variables cannot be measured or in which the variables are vague enough that they
cannot provide information to falsify the theory, are called tautological.
A research hypothesis is a specific and falsifiable prediction regarding the relationship between some
variables. In experimental designs it involves the relationship between a dependent variable and an
independent variable, where manipulation on an independent variable should cause changes in the
measured dependent variable. In correlational research, both variables are measured and it is not
possible to state causal relationships. The variables are sometimes replaced with the terms predictor
variable and outcome variable.
Chapter 3
Ethics in Research
4 basic goals of ethical research:
- Protecting participants from physical and psychological harm
o Avoiding long-term negative effects.
- Providing freedom of choice about participating in the research
o Observational research, institutional settings (like hospitals or universities where
tests are required), participating because of financial needs.
o The informed consent provides freedom of choice and reduces psychological stress
from participation. It provides a description of the research procedures,
confidentiality, and voluntary participation.
- Maintaining awareness of the power differentials between researcher and participant
o The researcher can control the participant’s behavior, how the data is used and
whether privacy is invaded.
o Data can be anonymous or be kept confidential (for example with codes instead of
names).
- Honestly describing the nature and use of the research to participants
o Deception occurs when participants are not fully informed about the nature of a
research project before participating in it, it can be active (example: believing
another hypothesis is being studied) or passive (example: not being told the
hypothesis). Sometimes, it is needed to study natural behavior.
o In a simulation study, participants are fully informed and asked to behave as they
would in a natural setting. But it often does not reflect what they actually do.
o The debriefing occurs immediately after the research and explains the purposes and
procedures, and is designed to remove potential harmful aftereffects. It can be
combined with a postexperimental interview in which the participant’s reactions to
the research are assessed. A suspicion check can be used to determine whether the
participants could guess the manipulation and hypothesis. Process debriefing is an
active attempt to undo any changes in the participant that might have occurred.
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