This document contains a good summary of the literature for the decentralised selection for Psychology. The summary consists of three parts: Introduction to Psychology: Methodology and Health, Social Psychology and Statistics.
This chapter will describe how evidence is gathered and verified in psychology. In this way,
you will come to understand how psychologists study behavior and mental processes. In this
chapter, the big questions about research methodology are:
(1) How is the scientific method used in psychological research?
(2) What type of studies are used in psychological research?
(3) What are ethics governing psychological research?
(4) And how are data analyzed and evaluated?
How Is the Scientific Method Used in Psychological Research?
Psychologists use empirical science to gain accurate knowledge about behaviour and
mental processes, only by observing the world and measuring aspects of it. Empiricism: the
theory that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses. Stimulated by the
rise of experimental science.
[Science Has Four Primary Goals]
There are four primary goals of (psychological) science:
● description: describe what a phenomenon is
● prediction: predict when it will occur
● control: control what causes it to occur
● explanation: explain why it occurs
A theory is good when it produces a wide variety of testable hypotheses. An especially
important feature of good theories is that they should be falsifiable. What means, it should be
possible to test hypotheses that show the theory is wrong. Also, a good theory is supported
by the data. How more studies show that something is true/false, the better the support for
the theory. A classic example of a theory that is not falsifiable comes from Sigmund Freud.
In his book The Interpretation of Dreams(1900), Freud outlined the theory that all dreams
represent the fulfillment of an unconscious wish. The theory is frequently criticized for not
being falsifiable, because it generated few testable hypotheses regarding the actual function
of dreams, unconscious wishes are not known to anyone (including the person having the
dreams and there is no way you can prove that dreams do represent unconscious wishes
but there is no way either to prove that dreams do not represent unconscious wishes.
Good theories also tend toward simplicity, this was William of Occam his idea. Occum
proposed that when two competing theories exist to explain the same phenomenon, the
simpler of the two theories is generally preferred. This principle is known as Occam’s razor
or the law of parsimony. As long as simple theories describe the data, there is no need for
more-complex theories.
_________________________________________________________________________
Why was Freud’s theory of dreams not a good theory?
➢ ANSWER: it did not yield testable hypotheses
_________________________________________________________________________
,[The Scientific Method Tests Hypotheses]
To determine whether a theory is true or not, you need to conduct research. After an
observation has been made and a theory has been formulated, the scientific method follows
a series of seven steps:
(1) Frame a Research Question
A good theory leads to a wide variety of interesting research questions. Researches
can begin with any question, but typically they start with a basic question that directly
tests the theory.
(2) Conduct a Literature Review
Once you have a research idea, you want to perform a literature review. A literature r
review is a review of the scientific literature related to your theory.
(3) Form a Hypothesis
Hypotheses are your testable research predictions, which you can design based on
what you’ve learned in your literature review.
(4) Design a Study
There are three different research methods.You can conduct a survey, for example
give people a questionnaire. Instead of a survey, you could conduct a naturalistic
observation (watch a particular group (and use devices to measure their driving
speed for example)). Alternatively, you could perform an actual experiment (one
group who texts and one group who doesn’t texts while driving, then comparing the
number of accidents they have).
(5) Conduct the Study
After you chose your research method, you have to conduct the study: Recruit
participants and measure their responses. It's basically collecting data or gathering
data.
(6) Analyze the Data
There are two main ways to analyze data. First, you want to describe the data. What
was the average score? Second, you will want to know what conclusions you can
draw from your data. Are your results meaningful or did they happen by chance.
(7) Report the Results
Unreported results have no value, because no one can use any of the information.
Instead, scientists make their findings public to benefit society, to support scientific
culture, and to permit other scientists to build on their work.
_________________________________________________________________________
In the scientific method, what do you call a specific, testable prediction?
➢ ANSWER: hypothesis
_________________________________________________________________________
[The Scientific Method is Cyclical]
Replication: Repetition of a research study to confirm or contradict the results (repeating the
study to see if the results are the same (or similar)).
The Importance of Context - The change in attitudes (toward marriage equality) makes it
difficult to replicate studies on the topic conducted years ago.
_________________________________________________________________________
,Why is considering context important for replications?
➢ ANSWER: People change over time and may differ across circumstances, such as
different cultures. Such changes and differences may affect study results.
_________________________________________________________________________
[Evaluating Scientific Findings Requires Critical Thinking]
Critical thinking: question information and ask for the definition of each part of the claim (the
evaluation of information).
Peer-Reviewed Journals: Research reports in peer-reviewed journals are the most
trustworthy source for scientific evidence. Those articles are written by experts and are
reviewed by several other experts in the field before the article is published in the journal in
order to ensure the article's quality.
_______________________________________________________________________
Why is peer review important in the research cycle?
➢ ANSWER: It helps ensure that studies have been well designed, conducted in an
ethical manner, and address an important question.
_______________________________________________________________________
What Types of Studies Are Used in Psychological Research?
There are three main types of research methods: descriptive, correlational, and
experimental. All research involves variables. A variable is something in the world that can
vary and that the researcher can manipulate (change), measure (evaluate), or both. For
example: number of text received and cell phone experience.
[Descriptive Research Consists of Case Studies, Observation, and Self-Report Methods]
Descriptive research/methods: observational studies, for example using a one-way mirror to
observe kids, are a method that researchers use to describe behaviour objectively.
There are three basic types of descriptive research methods:
● Case studies: A descriptive research method that involves the intensive examination
(observation, recording, and description) of an unusual person (for example,
someone with a rare disease) or organization (that, for example, is losing a lot of
money). ! only one person or organization is the focus of a case study !
● Observational studies: Two main types of observational techniques are used in
research: participant observation(the researcher is involved in the situation) and
naturalistic observation(the observer is passive, separated from the situation and
making no attempt to change or alter ongoing behaviour).
● Self-reports and interviews: Methods of data collection in which people are asked to
provide information about themselves. Self-report methods, such as surveys or
questionnaires, can be used to gather data from a large number of people. They are
easy to administer, cost-efficient, and a relatively fast way to collect data.
_______________________________________________________________________
What is a major limitation of case studies?
➢ ANSWER: Their findings might not generalize, or apply, to people beyond the
particular case.
_______________________________________________________________________
, [Descriptive Studies Need to Guard Against Bias]
A problem common to all descriptive studies is that behaviour may be affected by being
studied. One problem in asking-based methods of data collection is that people often
introduce biases into their answers. They will answer the question differently. Researchers
therefore have to consider the extent to which their questions produce socially desirable
respondingor faking good, in which the person responds in a way that is most socially
acceptable.
When conducting observational research, scientists must consider the critical question of
whether the observer should be visible. The concern here is that the presence of the
observer might alter the behaviour being observed. Such an alteration is called reactivity.
The Hawthorne effect refers to changes in behavior that occur when people know that others
are observing them.
Observer bias: Systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer’s
expectations.
Experimenter expectancy effect: Actual chance in the behavior of the people or nonhuman
animals being observed that is due to the expectations of the observer.
How do researchers protect against experimenter expectancy effects? It is best if the person
running the study is blind to, or unaware of , the study’s hypotheses.
_______________________________________________________________________
Suppose that students who know they are in a study of race relations are careful to avoid
saying anything offensive. What concern might you have about this study?
➢ ANSWER: The study results, the participants’ behaviors, are possibly being affected
by reactivity.
_______________________________________________________________________
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