There were only seven problems in this block.
Problem 1
Learning and Memory
Memory: process of saving information for a period of time. Greater emphasis on
recalling it later. (Difference between learning)
Storage: Putting new information in memory
Encoding: modification of memory to make it easier to store.
o Changing the format of the information
o Simplifying the information. (You can remember that the middle name was
mentioned in the book but you don’t recall what it was)
Retrieval: the process which people find the
information that they’ve previously stored.
The Dual-Store Model (3 Component model)
Working memory and long-term memory are
different entities.
Control process: a cognitive process that
directly affects the memory’s functioning.
Sensory register (1)
Holds the incoming information long enough for it to undergo very preliminary cognitive
processing. Sensory register holds information before any significant encoding occurs.
Capacity: very large capacity.
Forms of storage: visual inputs are stored in a visual form…
Duration: Visual information > less than a second, maximum of 2 seconds until new
information comes. Auditory information > 2 seconds or a bit more. Louder stimuli last
longer than the quite stimuli. Auditory information can be stored longer than the visual
information because humans have a greater capacity for language.
Reasons why information fades away from the sensory register.
1. Inference: new information coming replaces the information that is already in
the sensory register.
2. Decay: unimportant information erases itself seconds after arriving to the
sensory register.
Working memory (2)
Sensory register to working memory. (ATTENTION)
Factors affecting attention
1. Motion: moving objects.
2. Size: Larger objects take more attention
3. Intensity: bright colors, loud noises.
4. Novelty
, 5. Incongruity: objects that don’t make sense capture attention
6. Social cues: people are more likely to pay attention to things they see others looking
at and reacting to.
7. Emotion
8. Personal significance: information that is personally relevant
Nature of attention
o Cocktail-party phenomenon: the ability to attend one spoken message while
ignoring others.
o Shadowing: trying to recall 1 set of dialogue when listening 2 sets of. (Harder
when both of them are similar in sound, topic and pace)
o People can filter some sources of attention.
o Some automatic responses: immediately looking in the direction of loud noise
o Conscious control: deciding which conversation to listen
o Learning: people can learn to draw attention to several stimuli.
Capacity of attention
o Figure-ground: when people are focusing on the details on one object (figure),
they cannot also inspect other things in their line of sight (ground).
o Limited processing capacity: number of stimuli being attended to depending on
how much cognitive processing is required for each one.
o People can divide their attention to 2 complex tasks if they have experience on
both of them.
o Learners should filter, ignore or selectively choose some information.
Working memory
o Short-term memory
o Active thinking occurs.
o Awareness or consciousness of memory system.
o Identifies the information on sensory register, saves the information and
processes it further.
o Capacity: 7-9 digit numbers or 3-4 meaningful pieces of information can be
stored at one time.
o Chunking: process of combining information in some way. (can slightly increase
the amount of information the working memory can hold)
o Forms of storage: encoded in auditory form, visual, spatial, tactile, psychomotor
forms.
Phonological loop: can keep a small amount of auditory information
fresh through constant repetition.
Visuospatial sketchpad: allows manipulation and short-term retention of
visual material.
Episodic buffer?
o Duration: 30 seconds or shorter.
o Control processes in the working memory
, Retrieval: Retrieving information from working memory is automatic and
easy. Scanning all of working memory’s contents and finding the desired
one.
Organization: attaching meaning to numbers > long-term memory.
Element interactivity.
Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information to keep it alive in working
memory to prevent decay and interference. (Learned skill-if not
repeated forgotten and can’t be transferred to long-term memory)
Word length effect: shorter words are easier to repeat and remember.
Central executive component of working memory
o Central executive: head of the system
o Controls and monitors the flow of information through the memory system.
o People differ at how effectively they control and process their attention.
o Effortful control: individual brain difference when it comes to information and
attention processing.
Long-term Memory (3)
Connecting new information with prior knowledge
Storage occurs slowly and a great deal of information is lost in the process.
Working memory might prevent some information from going to the long-term
memory. (Bottleneck)
Declarative knowledge: how things are, were or will be.
Procedural knowledge: how to do things
Capacity: unlimited.
Forms of storage:
o Encoding, sensory images, nonverbal abstractions, meanings, idiosyncratic
interpretations.
o Explicit knowledge: knowledge that can be easily recalled and explained
o Implicit knowledge: knowledge that affects people’s behavior even though they
can’t consciously retrieve it.
o Interconnectedness: related pieces tend to be associated together
Duration: forever. Any information that is forgotten > retrieval problem.
Challenges to the Dual-store model
Working memory and long-term memory can be different aspects of the same
mechanism.
Working memory is not that conscious. People could answer questions regarding
frequency without consciously knowing it.
Alternative views on human memory
Level of processing model
Depth of information processing
, Incoming information is processed by a central processor. This processor can hold so
much at one time.
How well, long the information is stored depends on how thoroughly the processor
dealt with.
Very briefly processed information > sensory register
Incidental learning
Intention to learn & deep processing
Rating the words pleasantness is more effective than just repeating the word.
Superficially stored (appearance, brightness) > working memory
1. Labels: repeated the name of the objects
2. Sentence generation
3. Sentence repetition
4. “what” question: relationship questions that starts with what
5. “why” question: questions asking why a particular relationship existed between
objects.
Activation model
Working memory and long-term memory are simply different activation states of single
memory.
Active information: new and stored information that the person is paying attention to
Inactive information: previously activated information becomes inactive when the
attention is shifted.
Priming: activation almost invariably spreads from one piece of information to
associated pieces.
Same ideas between theories
Attention is crucial for explicit memory. Long-term retention of information.
How to increase attention
o Include variety of topics and presentation styles
o Novelty
o Provide frequent breaks from tasks requiring considerable attention
o Ask questions
o Minimize distractions
o Seat them near teacher
o Monitor students’ behavior
o Consider the cognitive load on students and arrange the classes according to it
Cognitive Load Theory
Prior knowledge of the student > people may do worse
Mental rehearsal: repetition of the desired information
Working memory
Only 5-9 discrete items can be stored at a time.
Long-term memory and schemas
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