Unit 2H.2 - The USA, 1955-92: conformity and challenge
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History for Edexcel A Level: Democracies in change: Britain and the USA in the twentieth century
29 page document containing all notes for Key Topic 2: Protest and Reaction 1963-72, all sections covered: Civil Rights, Johnson's great society, Protest and Personal Freedom, Reactions to counter culture. These were the notes I used to achieve A*in History A-Level.
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Unit 2H.2 - The USA, 1955-92: conformity and challenge
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PROTEST AND REACTION (CLASS AND SUMMARY NOTES)
Protest and Reaction 1963-72
Civil Rights
BLACK POWER & THE BLACK PANTHERS
Idea - Black Power
o The Black Power movement developed in the mid 1960’s
o Why it developed Non-violent,
ghetto problems peaceful protests
influenced by Malcom X
National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) and
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) were too slow
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Congress of Racial Equality
(CORE) elected radical leaders
o The group had a different meaning to everyone – Cleveland Sellers of the SNCC said it was
‘deliberately ambiguous’
o Black Americans – racial pride and social and political independence
o White Americans – associated them with violence
STRENTHS OF BLACK POWER
The umbrella term – it is a political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies
aimed at achieving self-determination for people of African descent. It is used primarily, but
not exclusively, by African Americans in the United States
The Black Power Movement of the 1960’s and 1970’s was a political and social movement
whose advocates believed in racial pride, self- sufficiency, and equality for all people of Black
and African descent. By the mid-1960's, many of them no longer saw MLK’s non-violent
protests as a viable means of combatting racism.
For many Blacks it meant social and political independence
MLK - “I think Black Power is an attempt to develop pride”
Black Power advocates/ supporters had big variety of beliefs;
,PROTEST AND REACTION (CLASS AND SUMMARY NOTES)
An alliance with victims of colonialist oppression in less developed nations
It advocated a Black Working-Class revolution
Political power, economic power and a new self-image
Attempt of pride
Increase of interest in African American history, music, dress & appearance
African American culture courses appeared in schools/universities
Focus on aesthetics: 'black is beautiful'
Greater publicity of inequalities and African American identities (Black Power salute at
Mexico '68)
Local communities and groups promote African American rights and economics (1972
National Black Political Convention to urge reform)
Shifted from conventional politics to 'identity politics' which impacted on a range of issues
Example;
The Meredith March 1969
James Meredith was the first black American student to enter the University of Mississippi
Planned the march to encourage black voter registration – he spoke to reporters which have
the Movement more publicity
He was shot at by a white man and was hospitalised – this gave more sympathy to the
Movement and more publicity onto the issues faced by black Americans
SNSS – Carmichael and SCLC –MLK took up the march
Carmichael was arrested
Carmichael cried for “Black Power”- MLK chanted “Freedom Now”
This is significant because it drew attention to deeper division – widely showed King’s
rejection of Black Power e.g. black’s exclusion of whites was rejected
The phrase “Black Power” was given national prominence
Brought Carmichael to the White population’s attention- the forefront of the Black Struggle
Weaknesses- Black Power
Always ill-defined and seen as a poorly organised group.
The violence would have discouraged white people and encouraged them to support racist
views. The movement saw their questionable form of protest as self-defense. They believed
that groups such as the NAACP and the SCLC didn’t make enough progress because of their
peaceful attitudes to protesting.
They were sexist and alienated the women who could have supported them.
They had a strong determination in the unrealistic American revolution -
They created a division between black movements, as they separated themselves from
MLK’s peaceful civil rights movements.
They attracted the white authorities who prevented the growth of Black Power and pursued
silencing the Black Power leaders, like Stokely Carmichael.
They wouldn’t cooperate with politicians, making political changes hard to achieve.
Important funding for the SNCC and CORE was lost
They failed to bring change to ghettos, which were one of their main objectives when
starting the movement.
Radical leadership of Stokely Carmichael, who wrote that non-violence is foolish.
They failed to free black Americans from ghettos, where poor living conditions remained.
Idea – Black Panther
, PROTEST AND REACTION (CLASS AND SUMMARY NOTES)
o Founded 1966 Oakland, California by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale (called themselves
the ‘heirs of Malcom X”)
o One of the most radical black organisations
o The main issue it addressed was police racism and brutality
o Aims – full employment, decent housing, ‘education that teaches us our true black history’,
reparations, self-determination, end of police brutality and improvement in ghettos.
o Like an alternative establishment / government – ran a breakfast programme for children,
raised awareness for sickle cell anaemia and in 1969 set up the first Liberation School
(summer school)
o Total of 5,000 members in 30 chapters (local strands of national movements)
o Did have a significant impact – newspaper circulated to 250,000 by 1969
STRENGHTS OF BLACK PANTHERS
Caught the popular imagination as they attracted so much media attention
Majority of black Americans sympathised with the Black Panthers
Won support among many of the ghetto residents:
Had over 40 clinics advising on health, welfare and legal rights
Ran breakfast programmes for thousands of poor black schoolchildren
Raised awareness of sickle cell anaemia (disease that disproportionately affected black
people)
1969 set up their first Liberation school
Summer school for black children, curriculum designed to generate knowledge of and pride
in black culture and history
Police Brutality:
Black Panther aim was to stop police brutality
Black Panthers appeared to be strong and fearless to those who had long been oppressed
Stockpiled weapons for self-defence and tailed the police in the hope of exposing their
brutality
1967, Black Panthers surrounded and entered the California state legislature to protest the
repressive legislation
Paramilitary uniforms, weapons and strong cries
Weaknesses- Black panthers
MLK thought that they were too violent. Originally named the Black Panther Party for Self Defence.
Many members joined because they saw the failure of the CRM which occurred because they were
‘too peaceful’. Judged for being heirs of Malcolm X, viewed by some as being too radical.
Failure in aiding the ghetto condition
Institutionalised racism in ghetto prevailed, resulting in:
Poor living conditions
Police brutality - didn’t decrease. Fred Hampton a young but “natural leader” within the
party was shot dead by the police on December 4 th 1969. In fact, in 2016, 300 were killed
through police brutality.
Didn't achieve freedom for jailed blacks
Didn't exempt blacks from military service
Didn't achieve UN referendum on self-determination
Didn't achieve independent state for African American
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