KBT Summary
Grammar
Main Clause - Independent Clause: A main clause contains a subject and a verb as well to express a
complete thought. It’s a clause that can stand alone as a sentence.
Relative Clauses: Relative clauses give us information about the subject or object of a main clause.
Defining relative clause: The same as a restrictive relative clause. It describes exactly which (or what
kind of) person or thing we mean. We can also use when (about times, days, years), where (about
places) and why (about reason) to introduce relative clauses. You can’t leave it out, e.g.:
Arthur Conan is the writer who invented Sherlock Holmes. (The writer? which writer? The one who
invented Sherlock Holmes).
Non-defining relative clause: The same as a non-restrictive relative clause. It doesn’t exactly describe
who or what we mean. Instead it gives us extra information about the subject or object of a main
clause. We can use a non-defining relative clause, usually at the end of the sentence, to say
something about the whole of the main clause. If we remove the clause, the sentence still makes
sense, e.g.:
Alexander Solzhenitsyn, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1970, wrote several novels.
Alexander Solzhenitsyn wrote several novels.
We don’t use that or what in non-defining relative clauses. Because non-defining relative clauses do
not identify the subject in the main clause, there is a difference in meaning. Unlike defining relative
clauses, non-defining relative clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. We
usually put the clause immediately after the subject it refers to, e.g.:
The author of the novel, which you can buy for $20, lives in Edinburgh.
Conditional clauses: We use if for uncertain clauses and when for certain clauses.
1. Present conditions (zero conditional): Describes real situations that can happen at any
time, or one event that always follows another. We can use when instead of if. Giving instructions for
a situation, e.g.: If the lift breaks down, press the alarm button.
2. Future conditions (first conditional): To talk about the results of a possible future
condition, one we think is likely to happen. Possible future situations, offers and warnings, e.g.: If
they catch you, they’ll call the police.
3. Second conditional (unlikely/unreal conditions): Unlikely future conditions, unreal present
conditions, giving advice, e.g.: If I got a pay rise this year, I’d buy a new car.
4. Third conditional (past conditionals): Imaginary past actions and situations / regrets, e.g.:
If I hadn’t got the job, I might have stayed in London.
5. Mixed conditionals: Present result of an imaginary past action. Imaginary past result of a
present action, e.g.: If you hadn’t had the operation, you could be really ill now. If I didn’t believe you,
I would have left you.
Subordinate clause: Gives us more information about the main clause. It cannot stand on its own.
Demonstrative determiner: This, That, These, Those.
Possessive determiner: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their.
,Uncountable nouns: Things we can’t count like food and drinks, materials, school subjects, etc.
Countable nouns: Things we can count. (museums, laptops, etc.)
The possessive form of nouns: The genitive case
* Singular noun + ‘s (Jane’s apartment)
* Names that end in –s + ‘ or ‘s (James’(s) school)
* Plural nouns that end in –s + ‘ (Boys’ team)
* Plural noun (irregular) + ‘s (Children’s dinner)
Noun group = Noun Phrase
Includes a noun and the modifiers which distinguish it
Numbers and Numerals: Cardinal: One, two, three, four etc. Ordinal: 1st (first), 2nd (second), 3rd
(third), 4th (fourth).
Question tags: Tag questions, e.g.: You aren’t still getting those headaches, are you?
Sentence analyses/Syntax:
1. Compound sentences: You link two or more main clauses with conjunctions: ‘and’ , ‘but’ ‘or/nor’
2. Complex sentences: There is a main clause and another clause which is often introduced by
conjunctions such as ‘because’ ‘although’ ‘if’ ‘that’ etc. This clause is a subordinate clause, which
means that it cannot stand on its own.
Subject & verbs: They describe the function of these two constituents - what they do in a clause. We
can also look at what form an element has. "The tall man" is a Noun Group; "was laughing" is a Verb
Group. When you analyse a whole sentence, you are expected to comment on form and function.
S: Subject: Onderwerp
V: Verb: Predicator - Gezegde
Od: Direct object: Lijdend voorwerp. Typically refers to some person or thing directly affected by the
action expressed by the verb.
Oi: Indirect object: Meewerkend voorwerp. Typically refers to a person that is the recipient of the
action. If there is an Indirect object in the clause, there is nearly always a Direct Object as well.
Cs: Complement to the subject = subject complement = subject attribute: Naamwoordelijk deel van
het gezegde, e.g.: He is a doctor. That Tune sounds marvellous. The bull became very angry.
Co: Complement to the object = object complement = object attribute: Bepaling van gesteldheid,
e.g.: James / called / his little sister / a fool.
There is the same kind of relationship between the elements ‘his little sister’ and ‘a fool’. In this case
‘his little sister’ is a DO; the element ‘a fool’ is therefore a Complement to the Object,
Hilary made her shoe wet. They elected Bush President.
A: Adjunct = adverbial = adjunct adverbial: Bijwoordelijke bepalingen. Elements which indicate
circumstances. Such as time, place, manner etc. These optional elements are called Adverbials or
Adjuncts, e.g.: I / met / him / in London. Yesterday / Susan / finished / her project / at last.
I / arrived / on the bus / on Thursday / in the rain.
Adverbials do not have a fixed place in the clause, they can usually be moved around.
C: Conjunction = linking word: Adds something: and/ both.... and../ not only.....but .... also/ as well
as/ in addition (to) Shows a difference between two things: But/ while/ whereas/ although/ even
though/ however / Nevertheless.
Gives a choice: or / either ... or / neither .... nor
,Gives a reason: Because (of) / as / since
Gives a result: as a result / therefore / so / so ... (that) / such ... (that)/ too / enough
Gives a purpose: to / in order to / so as to / in order that / so that
Links times/events: before/ after/ as soon as/ when / while/ until
Shows a series of events: first/ then/after that/ later / in the end/eventually
Shows stages in a process: First/ Then/ Next/ After that/ Finally
Much, many. Little, few: Much and many are mainly used in negative sentences and questions.
Much: is used for uncountable nouns. Many: is used with plural countable nouns.
Few: (not many) Plural countable nouns. A Few: (small amount) Plural countable nouns.
Little: (not much) Uncountable nouns. A Little: (small amount) Uncountable nouns.
Verb group - Verb phrase: All verbs in a sentence: He may have listened to our talk.
1. Verb Forms: Continuous form = progressive form
Is a verb tense used to show an ongoing action in progress at some point in time. It shows an action
still in progress. Present continuous, Past continuous, Future Continuous.
Modals = modal verbs = modal auxiliaries: We use a modal verb with another verb to show that an
action is possible, necessary or certain. We also use modal verbs to ask permission or to give advice,
e.g.: Able to, Had to / didn’t have to, May/ may not, Might/ Might not, Must/ must not, Need to/
don’t need to/ needn’t, Ought to/ ought not to, Will, Would
Copula = link verb: Verbs that link the Subject and the Subject Complement. ‘To be’ and ‘to become’
are the two most common link verbs. Other link verbs are for example; to grow, to look, to seem, to
appear, to sound etc. If you recognise the verb in a sentence as a link verb, then you know that there
is also a Subject Complement in the Sentence, just as there is always a Direct Object, if there is a
transitive verb.
Main verb = lexical verb = notional verb = ordinary verb: Hoofdwerkwoord. A main verb carries the
meaning in a verb phrase
Word class – Parts of speech:
Noun: A word that identifies: A person, a Thing, an Idea, Quality or state
Verb: Describes what a person or thing does, or what happens: an Action, an event, a situation, a
change ( jump, happen, be, widen)
Transitive verbs: Verbs that are followed by Objects.
Intransitive verbs: Verbs that are not followed by Objects, some intransitive verbs need no
complements at all, but others are followed by a complement that is not an object.
Adjective: A word that describes a noun, giving extra information about it.
Adverb: A word that’s used to give information about a verb, adjective, or other adverb. They can
make the meaning of a verb, adjective or other adverb stronger or weaker, and often appear
between the subject and its verb.
Pronoun: Are often used in place of a noun that is already known or has already been mentioned.
This is often done in order to avoid repeating the noun. (Laura left because she was tired).
Preposition: A word such as after, in, to , on, with (kast-woorden)
Conjunction: A word such as and, because, but, for, if, or, when
Determiner: A word that introduces a noun, such as a/an, the, every, this, those, many.
The = definite article, a /an = indefinite article
Exclamation: A word or phrase that expresses strong emotion (!)
, Present simple: Facts/ permanent situations/ thoughts. Feelings/ opinions/ (dis)likes/ regular
activities/ routines/ describing/ telling stories/ describing states
Present continuous: Actions happening now/ temporary situations/ criticising someone/ changes
and trends/ describing pictures
Past Simple: Finished actions in the past/ repeated actions in the past/ a series of past actions/ past
situations
Past continuous: actions at around a time in the past/ temporary situations in the past/ one action
interrupted by another action/ plans that didn’t happen/ a scene in the past
Past perfect simple: An earlier action in the past / giving reasons for past actions/ feelings
Past perfect continuous: Continuing past actions that were happening before another action, time/
emphasising time/ giving reasons for past actions/ feelings
Present perfect: actions- experiences in our lives until now/ a past action with present results for
recent events/ actions in a time period that is still continuing/ repeated actions in the past (which
may be repeated in the future)/ with for or since for situations that started in the past and continue
now/ giving news
Present perfect continuous: Continuing actions- situations until now emphasising time/ to explain a
present situation
Future with going to: future plans/ things we expect to happen (because of something in the
present)
Future with will: Things we think will happen/ certain future/ immediate decisions/ offers, promises
and warnings
Future with present continuous: Future arrangements/ to say why we can’t do something
Future continuous: Continuing actions at- around a time in the future/ future actions with possible
results/ to ask polite questions about plans
Future perfect: Actions completed by a time in the future
Future perfect continuous: Continuing action up to a time in the future/ to explain the reason for a
future situation
Future with present simple: Fixed future events (on timetables and schedules)/ after when, as soon
as, etc.
Was/ were going to (future in the past): Something that was in the future from a point of view of a
time in the past/ something we expect to happen but which didn’t happen
Gerund – infinitive – bare infinitive: A gerund is a noun made from a verb by adding ‘-ing’. The
gerund form of the verb ‘read’ is ‘reading’. You can use a gerund as the subject, the complement or
the object of a sentence. Infinitives are the ‘to’ forms of the verb.
Word order: wie – doet – wat/wie –waar – wanneer. Onderwerp - Gezegde/ werkwoorden –
lijdend/ meewerkend voorwerp – Plaatsbepaling - Tijdbepaling
Comparative form: (two things) Irregular ( Bad worse)
add – er ( larger- smaller)
More/ less ( more/ less useful – More/ less expensive)
Superlative form: (more than two things)
add – (e)st (largest – smallest)
The most/ Least ( The most/ least useful – the most/ least expensive)
Irregular ( Bad worst)
