Summary notes for issues and debates topic in AQA Psychology A level. Each subtopic is broken down into 6 points for description and 4 - 5 points for evaluation, it is written in short form to ensure that it is as direct and easy to memorise as possible.
1. Universality: psychologists hold beliefs and values that have been influenced by the
social and historical context which they live. These beliefs may be biased as leans
towards a subjective view that does not necessarily reflect objective reality.
2. Alpha bias refers to when the differences between men and women are exaggerated
and typically presented as fixed and inevitable. Usually devalue women compared to
men.
3. An example is Freud’s theory of psychosexual development as he believed men had
strong castration anxiety, which is removed when he identifies with his father,
however a girl’s identification with mother is weaker, as superego is weaker.
4. Beta bias is when the differences are ignored or underestimated, usually assumed that
findings apply to men and women, even when women excluded from research
process.
5. An example is fight or flight response generalised to men, recently researchers found
tend and befriend more likely for women as oxytocin production increases, ‘love’
hormone.
6. Consequences of androcentrism which is when behaviour is judged according to a
male standard. Women’s behaviour if considered has been misunderstood, at worst
pathologized like anger seen as a sign of PMS, but men’s anger is seen as rational.
Eval
1. – Gender differences often presented as fixed and enduring. Maccoby and Jacklin
presented the findings of several gender studies which concluded girls have superior
verbal ability, boys better spatial ability. Accepted as fact. Joel used brain scanning
and found no such sex differences in brain structure or processing. Data from M&J
was popularised as fitted stereotypes
2. + counter. Doesn’t mean psychologists should avoid studying possible gender brain
differences. Ingalhalikar suggests that the popular social stereotype – women better at
multitasking may have biological truth. Women’s brain may have better connections
between hemispheres.
3. – sexism in research. Women underrepresented in uni departments. Lectures in psych
more likely to be men. Thus research more likely to be done by men and may
disadvantage women and women may underperform.
4. – gender-biased research. Formanowicz analysed 1000+ articles relating to gender
bias published over 8yrs. Found research on gender bias funded less often and
published by less prestigious journals. Consequently less scholars aware/ apply it.
May not be taken as seriously as other biases.
Culture bias:
1. Henrich reviewed hundreds of studies in leading psychology journals, found that 685
research participants from US, 96% from industrialised nations and 80% were
undergrads studying psych. Shows culture bias.
2. WEIRD people studied – Westernised, Educated people from Industrialised, Rich
Democracies. If norm set by these people, then the opposite type of people (e.g. poor
etc) are seen as ‘abnormal’
, 3. Ethnocentrism: belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group.
4. Ainsworth and Bell’s Strange Situation criticised as reflecting only the norms and
values of Western culture, suggests ideal attachment was characterised by babies
showing distress when left, however this led to misinterpretation of other child-
rearing practices like Japan when insecure attachment common as babies rarely
separated from mother.
5. Berry drew distinction between etic and emic approaches in studies. Etic – looks at
behaviour from outside a culture and attempts to describe it as universal (e.g. Strange
Situation). Research is often guilty of this.
6. Emic approach functions from inside a culture and identifies behaviours specific to
that culture.
Evaluation:
1. – classic studies biased. Both Asch’s and Milgram’s OG studies were conducted
exclusively with US (mainly white middle-class students). Replications in different
countries produced different results. E.g. Asch’s in collectivist cultures produced
higher conformity.
2. + counter, in increased media globalisation, its argued media-collectivist distinction
no longer applies. Traditionally individualists value independence + collectivists
value society but Takano & Osaka found 14 of 15 studies comparing Japan and US
found no evidence of either type. Less recent issue.
3. + cultural psychology. Cohen said it’s the study of how people shape and are shaped
by cultural experience. Emerging field and incorporates work from researchers in
other disciplines. Avoids ethnocentric assumptions by taking emic approach. Cross-
cultural research with 2 countries rather than larger scale. Mindful of cultural bias and
are taking steps to avoid it.
4. – ethnic stereotyping. Gould explained first intelligence tests led to eugenic social
policies in US. Psychologists used WWI to pilot first IQ tests on 1.75 mill army
recruits. Many items on test were ethnocentric. Recruits from SE-Europe and African-
Americans received lowest scores. This informed racist discourse about genetic
inferiority of particular ethnic groups rather than the test being at fault.
Free will and determinism
1. Free will suggests that human beings are self-determining and free to choose. Doesn’t
deny other forces and influences but suggests we can reject forces if we wish.
Humanistic approach.
2. Hard determinism referred to as fatalism and suggests all behaviour has a cause and
everything we think and do is dictated by uncontrollable forces. Soft determinism
suggested by James thought behaviour is determined but we have freedom to make
rational choices in everyday situation. Cognitive approach.
3. Biological determinism emphasised by biological approach, such as role of autonomic
nervous system on stress response or genes on mental health. Influence of
environment on biology.
4. Environmental determinism, Skinner argued all behaviour as result of conditioning
and free will is an illusion. ‘choice’ is sum total of reinforcement contingencies. Free
will illusion
5. Psychic determinism, Freud believed free will illusion + emphasised influence of
biological drives. Human behaviour determined by unconscious conflicts, repressed in
childhood. no such thing as an accident.
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