Lecture notes
Lecture Notes: PS1810: Imaginary Friends
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- University Of Winchester (UoW)
Semester 1 PS1810 notes. Written in 2020/21
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PS1810 – WEEK 2 – Imaginary friends – are they positive or negative for children’s development?Imaginary friends in the media
Often get bad press
Often depicted as the inventions of lonely and unhappy children
Many parents worry about their children having imaginary friends
Not only popular culture gives imaginary friends bad reputation but also psychological
research
Definitions
Earliest quote Svendson (1934):
- “An invisible character, named and referred to in conversation with other persons or
played with directly for a period of time, at least several months, having an air of reality
for the child, but no apparent objective basis”
Most studies use this definition
This excludes use of props or impersonating a friend
But different definitions use by different researchers, other researchers include personified
objects (e.g. Winnie the Pooh, Hobbes from Calvin & Hobbes)
Role play in which the child impersonated a specific character for a long period of time has
also been defined as a imaginary friend
Gleason, Sebane, and Hartup (2000): include personified and animated objects and role
playing specific character over a long period
Definitions vary depending on the researchers’ interest
Imaginary friends often are a secondary aim of research rather than a central issue (e.g.
language, creativity, ToM, social competence)
History of research on imaginary friends
Began at the start of last century: imaginary friends were a sign of mental illness
Psychodynamic tradition (1940s): renewed interest in the topic (Ames & Learned, 1946)
children with imaginary friends had problems
In the 1960s idea of imaginary friends changed and child care books posit that imaginary
friends were a sign of good mental health
Research in this century: past research had methodological problems, children selected from
mental health hospitals so prone to have psychological and emotional problems (Taylor,
1999)
Suggestions that imaginary friends are linked with personality disorder (Putnam, 1989, 1997;
Ross, 1996)
Whys should we examine imaginary friends?
Around 65% of children report having an imaginary friend at some point during their
childhood
• Undervalued because few researchers have examined them on their own
• Recent research: I.F. are a part of mainstream development, because they are more common
than previously thought (Pearson et al., 2001)
Prevalence
It depends on the research
Estimates range from 6% to 65%
Early research showed 13%-31% (Ames & Learned, 1946) but later research: 65% (Singer &
Singer, 1992) & 63% (Taylor, 1999), & 46.2% (Pearson et al., 2001).
Singer & Singer (1990): preschool ages as the high season of imaginative play
Most research estimates prevalence between 13%-30%
Pearson et al. (2001): assumption that imaginary friends are a preschool phenomena
Most research with children of 2.5-6 years
Some evidence imaginary friends can be present through childhood and into adulthood
Evidence that older children have I.F but are they new or same ones?
, Pearson et al. (2001)
Aim: examined the prevalence of imaginary friends in 1795 children aged 5-12
Findings:
- 46.2% reported a past or present I.F
- No support of I.F only present in very young children
- 33%-43% of 5-9 year-olds had an I.F.
- 19% of 10 year olds
- 9% of 12 year olds
Danger? Under-reported phenomena since older children reluctant to discuss I.F.
Pretend play
Having an I.F. considered as pretend play
Play ”as if” someone or something is real
2nd year of life children engage in large amounts of pretend play
Ability to engage in pretend play linked to development of self-recognition, ToM, &
language ability
Characteristics of imaginary friends
Some drawn from T.V., movies & stories
Some reflect real friends that the child has (about 1/3 according to Singer & Singer, 1990)
particularly those admired
Some are original & creative ideas out of the child’s imagination
Some become part of the family requiring to be seated at the table & driven in the car
(Taylor et al., 1993)
Gleason et al. (2000):
View of personified objects & I.F. as developmentally distinct
Personified objects are more stable & ubiquitous than invisible friends (present for 17.8
months compared to 9.8 months)
Quality of relationship: horizontal relationships for invisible companions (friendships) vs
vertical relationships for personified objects (parent/child)
Functions of imaginary friends
Manosevitz, Prentice & Wilson (1973):
- Alleviate the loneliness of only children
Nagera (1969):
- To control the impulses & behaviours
- Allow children to express naughty or forbidden behaviours without fear of parental
criticism
- Help with feelings of loneliness or neglect- present until child finds real friends
- Help to deal with frustration or difficult aspects of environment
Why do children have imaginary friends? (Seiffe-Krenke 1997)
Giftedness hypothesis
Deficit hypothesis
Narcissism hypothesis
Functions of imaginary friends
Taylor (1999):
- Provide company & consolation
- Children with emotional or affective disorders
- Most children with I.F. do not suffer mental disorders
- Expression of symbolic play
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