A complete revision summary of the AQA A level psychology topic Issues and Debates. Covering all the bullet points made on the AQA specification for AO1. Also includes AO3 for each of these points. Made by a student who achieved A* in their A level.
Universality – the claim that psychological results are true of Culture bias refers to the tendency to ignore cultural differences and
everybody regardless of gender, race. Claims behaviour can be interpret all phenomena through the lens of one culture
applied to everybody regardless of their differences. Imposed etic – applying the research on one culture and generalising it
Bias – issue of validity/ reliability in research & ↓universality of to all cultures, to seek a universal phenomenon.
findings. - Milgram – suggested a universal rate of obedience. But Mann = 85% in
- Leads to incomplete & inaccurate understanding of human bh. Germany & Mantel = 16% in Australia.
- 64% of male psychologic are American & investigate on Western/ - Cultural differences are then deemed ‘abnormal’
individualistic cultures. Ethnocentrism – belief that the findings of your culture are superior,
- Majority of senior psychologists are male judges another culture based off the standard of one’s own culture.
- Ainsworth strange situation – used only American participants but
Gender bias – the differential treatment of men and women based attempted to claim universality in attachment types. But her
off stereotypes and not real evidence. attachment styles only reflected the norms & values of one culture
Alpha bias Beta bias - Her idea of ‘secure’ attachment led to other cultures being classified
Exaggerates gender Ignores/ minimises sex as high in ‘insecure’ e.g. Germany or Japan.
differences differences Etic approach – studies bh from ‘outside’ & aims to establish a
Differences are fixed & Assumption research findings can universal explanations to behaviour.
inevitable be generalised to both sex Emic approach – studies behaviour from within the culture & identifies
- Bowlby’s monotropic theory - Milgram’s study – only specific behaviours to that culture. Studies one culture with no cross-
suggests babies form a investigated men but cultural references.
monotropic bond with the generalised this to explain Reducing cultural bias (Berry 1969) - Psychology has been criticised for
mother which is more obedience in all genders - using an etic approach for research that has come about by emic.
significant than their when women were studied, Cultural relativism – appreciating that behaviour varies between
attachment to the father. they had different results cultures and we can only properly understand behaviour in the context of
- Freud suggests females the norms & values of the society in which it occurs.
develop a weaker superego - Increases our comprehensive understanding of human behaviour.
- One gender is devalued 1. Do not generalise findings to other cultures and keep them native to
Androcentrism - Male behaviour taken as the norm & female the one culture studied
behaviour that is different is considered ‘abnormal’ 2. Represent all sub-groups of the culture & use a large sample
- Women are ignored/ excluded. 3. Use a researcher native or familiar with that culture
- Longenecker – found since 1980 women are less likely to be Discussion Points
diagnosed with schizophrenia due to their high functioning ability scientific Imposed etic not always at risk - some behaviours
mean they hide the ‘normal’ symptoms seen in men. support for are universal & innate e.g., facial expressions.
Implications discrimination - These can be claimed universal and cross-cultural
Misleading ideas about female behaviour Worrell & Remer - Mantell - referenced.
Scientific justification to deny women criteria 85% Osaka - 14/15 studies that compared USA & Japan
opportunities in workplace/ society 1. Women should be obedience found no evidence of distinction between the cultures
affecting real life (1930 attending uni would studied within in Germany - Now outdated – the differences between
shrivel a women’s ovaries) meaningful real- compared to collectivist and individualistic cultures are
Mostly male psychologists at senior life context Milgram’s reducing,
levels 2. Diversity within 65% - this is because of the global media communication
- Male researchers more likely to have groups of women rapidly increasing.
work published, differences published should be - So, we can generalise with more confidence
more than similarities investigated Berry – there is ways to reduce cultural bias
- Formanowicz – found 1000 articles 3. Qualitative data
relating to gb not published & given less to why
, Free will – humans are self-determining & free to choose Nature – behaviour is a product of genes. Nurture – behaviour is
thoughts/ actions from environmental
- Humanistic approach influences
Determinism – there is a cause behind all behaviour Nativist theory - ‘anatomy is destiny’ & Empiricist theory derives
Hard Determinism – behaviour is determined by internal/ behaviour is innate. from John Lock’s ‘blank
external forces entirely out of our control. Hereditary coefficient scale (0-1) – the slate’ that behaviour is
Soft Determinism – behaviour is determined by internal/ influence of genetic factors on our learnt from the
external forces but an individual can still exercise some control. phenotype. environment
- Cognitive approach Behaviourist approach to phobias Biological approach to OCD
Biological determinism – behaviour is determined by internal Interactionism – behaviour is a result of the interaction between nature &
biological factors (genes, neurochemistry) that we cannot control nurture
- Genetic explanation to OCD - Diathesis-stress model – Mental health is due to a biologically
Environmental determinism – behaviour is the result of vulnerability (diathesis) which is expressed by an environmental trigger
stimulus-response conditioning. Choice is learnt through (stressor)
reinforcement. - Tienari – found that those with SZ parent had greater chance of
- Pavlov & Skinner/ phobias. developing SZ when adopted into an EE household compared to a normal
Psychic determinism – we are driven through unconscious household.
drives & instincts developed during childhood experiences. Epigenetics – a change in genes due to the environment
Scientific (causal) explanations – argue events must have - Environmental influences (smoking, diet, pollution) cause our body to
cause that can be explained using generic laws. switch genes on/off which can then be inherited by children
- Controlled lab experiment controls all variables. This mean - Dias & Ressler – gave mice electric shocks each time they were exposed
any effect on the DV must be because of the IV. to a smell & conditioned a phobia. Rats children & grandchildren having
- Can identify a cause-and-effect relationship. never been shocked, had a phobia to the smell.
- Help to predict & control events in future. - Is it nature of nurture we are investigating? Making the debate impossible
For determinism Against determinism Nature Nurture Both
Casual explanations are Biological determinism is not Drug No 100% Interactionism – IQ has coefficient 0.5
consistent with science consistent with legal system therapies concordance Impossible - factors can’t be isolated,
- If there is a cause, there is a Unfalsifiable – the causes OCD = rate for MZ impossible & time-wasting
treatment (Drug therapies) exist but we cannot test if 68% in twins. Dias & Ressler - add another element
OCD – MZ 68%, DZ 31% that was the cause on that MZ, 32% CBT & Plonin’s niche picking – the genes we inherit
action, only an assumption DZ client- influence the environment we choice e.g. an
For free will Against free will centred aggressive child chooses to watch aggressive
Face validity - everyday Soon - Brain scans have
choices shown activity for a discission
Roberts - People with an occurs 10secs before
internal LOC (who belief to have consciously making that
free will) report being mentally decision
happier
Application to therapy due to
belief in ability to change =
CBT, Roger’s therapy
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