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Sexual Ethics summary for A-level Ethics
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Soul, Mind and Body summary notes for AS/A2 Philosophy and Ethics
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Sexual EthicsCohabitation An unmarried couple living together in a sexually active relationship.
Sometimes known as ‘living in sin’
Consent Freely agreeing to engage in sexual activity with another person
Premarital Sex Sex before marriage
Extramarital Sex Sex beyond the confines of marriage, usually used to describe adulterous
sex
Betrothal Traditionally, the exchange of promises, which in earlier times marked the
point when sex was permitted
Consummation An act of sexual intercourse which indicates, in some traditions, the
finalisation of marriage
Exclusive A commitment to be in a sexual relationship with a person to the exclusion of
all others
Homosexuality Attraction between people of the same sex
Sexual pleasure and satisfaction are often presented as the holy grail. They are used in advertising to
sell products and often seen as a necessary ingredient in films.
Social norms and laws about certain issues have changed dramatically in Western countries in recent
decades. This is expressed through radical shifts in public attitudes to what is acceptable, and also
through changes to the law. In the UK, cohabitation and having children outside of marriage is no
longer stigmatised, while civil partnerships and same-sex marriage is now legal.
Sex is referred to throughout the Bible. In the Hebrew scriptures, Abraham has a child with his servant
Hagar and his wife, in the face of famine, Ruth uses her sexuality to seduce a landowner and adultery
is prohibited in the commandments.
Premarital Sex
Premarital sex refers to sex before marriage. It can happen on a casual basis, as part of a short-term
relationship or as part of a longer one. In the 1960s fewer than 1 in 20 couples cohabitated but that
has increased to more than half today. The introduction of the contraceptive pill in the 1960s has been
credited for driving this social change, as removing the fear of unwanted pregnancy diminished the
need to contain sex within marriage. In the 1960s, cohabitation was a short period before the couple
married but now it is more long-term.
In Anglo-Saxon England, spouses pledged themselves to one another in a betrothal ceremony, after
which they could have sex, then the marriage followed. In the 18 th century, half of brides were
pregnant during their marriage ceremony. Marriage was expected to follow after the betrothal but this
made women vulnerable to abandonment. In Britain, the aristocracy placed importance on virginity as
they then would know for certain that the child was theirs, and therefore their heir.
Early Christian views: Philo referred to women as "instruments of evil" who corrupt men. Without
women, he said, men would be rational creatures. Augustine said that the purpose of marriage is to
procreate, not to be friends. Just whip your clothes off and get it done, Augustine suggests. He
actually suggests that, if it were possible, two males would have made a better partnership in terms of
procreation.
Christianity generally teaches sex before or outside of marriage is a sin. It is argued that premarital
sex indicates a lack of moral discipline and poses a threat to marriage and family as institutions.
Cohabitation is seen as less committed than marriage, so Catholics in particular disagree with it.
“That is why a man leaves his father and mother and is united to his wife, and they become one
flesh.” (Genesis)
This quote emphasises the spiritual, emotional, and sexual purpose of marriage. Marriage and sexual
union are part of God’s plan.
The Catholic Church treats any sex outside of marriage as ‘free union’, in which demonstrates a lack
of commitment between the two, and is condemned as an offence against marriage.
,For the Catholic Church, premarital sex does not express fidelity, exclusivity and commitment so it
does not tolerate sex outside of marriage. People who commit this sin are excluded from receiving
communion until they have reconciled with a morally way of living.
On the other hand, the Church of England recognises premarital sex as a progression towards
marriage rather than a rejection of marriage. This view was initially, and still is, opposed by the more
conservative members of the church.
Some Christian churches try to find an alternative to simply ignoring or rejecting people who cohabit.
Adrian Thatcher suggests that Christian who believe all pre-ceremonial sex is immoral have wrongly
assumed that the ceremony is a requirement of marriage. Thatcher argues that it is the betrothal that
binds people together, not the marriage itself but a breach in the betrothal is seen as incredibly
serious in Christian tradition. However, betrothals have a big expectation of commitment unlike causal
cohabitation.
In Western countries, social attitudes and laws do not have to follow the Church’s moral teachings.
For instance, civil marriages now outnumber religious marriages in the UK and people wait longer to
get married, during which cohabitation is normal.
Anthony Harvey says that in terms of Biblical teaching we should remove the absolute
and look at the important things Jesus taught, such as love and compassion (this can also
be used for a situation ethics-based argument).
Strengths
Fundamentalist Christians argue the premarital sex is always wrong. The strength of taking
this moral position is the emphasis it places on the importance of marriage, and the
importance of self-discipline and self-control.
A liberal Christian response to sexual morality regards love (agape) as the primary goal of
any relationship.
Weaknesses
The Fundamentalist view of no sex before marriage ignores loving and caring relationships
outside marriage.
Theocentric ethical systems (having God at the centre) creates a sexual ethic that is
inhumane and therefore immoral. Homosexuals are forbidden by their faith from having
sexual intercourse, even within the context of a loving and stable relationship, as this is
contrary to God’s norm for human beings as expressed in the Scriptures.
Adolf Grunbaum argues that Christian sexual ethics is based on the narrow views of old men
who claim that this is what God wants.
Kant
Kant is concerned that human beings are not used, that they are always treated with dignity.
Premarital sex involves sexual relationships that are outside normative social rules. If you believe
social rules exist to protect the vulnerable, sex not governed by those rules is more risky for some; it
opens up the possibility that the person with less power in the relationship will be abused.
Although allowing pre-marital sex increases individual freedom which is important to Kant, it also
increases the requirement for the individuals involved to conduct themselves ethically and take their
moral duty towards others seriously.
Kant believed that in having sex, we were allowing someone to use us to fulfil their desires (as a
means to an end). We can only do so if we first get married, giving ourselves to the other person in
law, so that we have a common will.
Kant did believe in autonomy – if the couple were practicing safe sex, a modern Kantian might support
their right to have sex before marriage.
Strengths
, Kant might allow couples to live together if they man an unconditional promise to each other.
Prostitution isn’t allowed because it destroys human autonomy - it makes them a thing to be
used and often some people are forced into prostitution.
Kant believed that sex outside marriage led women to being abused and treated as things as
opposed to partners if they were married first.
Weaknesses
Kant allows no room for emotions, including love, in his view of sexual relationships.
Masturbation is contrary to Kant’s taxonomy for human beings to preserve life. However,
whilst suicide destroys a life that already exists, masturbation does not allow human life. It is
therefore contrary to Kant’s taxonomy of duties.
Human life cannot be preserved without sexual intercourse yet, at the same time, Kant
regarded sex as morally degrading.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarian ethics seeks to maximise the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
If happiness is equated with hedonistic pleasure, rather than a wider sense of well-being and
happiness, then utilitarianism could be used to legitimise a free, unregulated approach to sexual
behaviour. This is because giving people license to have pre-marital sex can maximise pleasure.
Strengths
A utilitarian approach to sex is often called libertarian as it allows consenting adults to do
whatever they life and considers that they should be free to do so.
Only sexual relationships that cause harm are considered wrong – i.e. adultery.
Bentham allows homosexual sex, pornography and prostitution – obviously whether this is a
strength of Utilitarianism is entirely subjective.
Mill believes both men and woman have the right to decide when they want to have sexual
intercourse. This may be outside marriage because sexual relationships are guided by the
need for freedom.
Mill also allowed prostitution, but it would be wrong for a husband to cause embarrassment to
his wife’s reputation by visiting brothels and treating her with contempt.
Some Utilitarians believe that someone with HIV or AIDs should be prevented from having
unprotected sex, for the general good of society. Equally, on the ground of STI’s, brothels
should be strictly regulated and unprotected sex not allowed. This will protect society.
However, some Utilitarians say that such steps impose impossible limits on human freedom.
Weaknesses
Bentham regarded the need to reduce poverty and control unwanted births are crucial for the
reduction of lawlessness, poverty, and disease. It ensured the greatest good for the greatest
number. This thinking would justify the forced sterilisation of Romany offenders in post-war
Sweden and in other parts of Europe.
Alan Wertheimer points out that the position that Mill holds disregards the negative effects of
autonomy. He argues that positive autonomy, Mill’s position, ignores the way in which
freedom can be exploited by pimps and by the traffic in sex.
Natural Law
Natural Law ethics sees right and wrong as fixed things. They do not change according to the
situation or what might happen as a result, but are linked to some greater idea of an eternal law
devised to help humans flourish. Acts are judged right or wrong in relation to the extent to which they
meet their ultimate end. The process of judging what is right or wrong involves the use of reason, and
reason leads us towards doing good. According to Aquinas, reason, reflecting on the world, reveals
that certain primary precepts are good: protecting life, ensuring reproduction, living in an ordered
society, education and loving God.
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