Psychologie en psychomotoriek
Psychologie en psychomotoriek ....................................................................................................................... 1
1 Wat is psychologie (niet) ............................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Definitie van Psychologie ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.2 Psychologie is een wetenschap * ................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 Korte geschiedenis van de psychologie ........................................................................................................ 6
1.4 Verschillende specialisatiedomeinen binnen de psychologie ...................................................................... 7
1.4.1 Cognitieve psychologie ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.2 Ontwikkelingspsychologie .................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.3 Klinische psychologie ............................................................................................................................ 7
1.4.4 Pseudopsychologie: “Het feest van de subjectiviteit” .......................................................................... 8
2 Bewustzijn ................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Historische inleiding ................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Meerdere definities van bewustzijn ........................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Bewuste bewustzijnsveranderingen........................................................................................................... 12
2.3.1 Hypnose .............................................................................................................................................. 12
2.3.2 Meditatie ............................................................................................................................................ 13
2.3.3 Psychoactieve middelen * .................................................................................................................. 13
3 Aandacht ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
3.1 Wat is aandacht? ........................................................................................................................................ 14
3.2 Selectieve aandacht.................................................................................................................................... 14
3.2.1 Filteren ................................................................................................................................................ 14
3.2.2 Oriënteren/ richten van de aandacht ................................................................................................. 15
3.3.3 Zoeken ................................................................................................................................................ 16
3.3.4 Voor- en nadelen van selectieve aandacht......................................................................................... 17
3.4 Verdeelde aandacht ................................................................................................................................... 17
3.4.1 Automatische VS gecontroleerde processen ...................................................................................... 17
3.4.2 Meervoudig capaciteitsmodel ............................................................................................................ 17
4 Visuele waarneming .................................................................................................................................... 19
4.1 Gewaarwording en waarneming * ............................................................................................................. 19
4.2 Sensorisch systeem .................................................................................................................................... 19
4.2.1 Sensorische processen ........................................................................................................................ 19
4.3 Overgang sensorisch → perceptueel ......................................................................................................... 21
4.3.1 Sensatie ≠ perceptie ........................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.2 Perceptuele constantie* ..................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.3 Visuele illusies * .................................................................................................................................. 21
4.3.4 Visuele agnosie * ................................................................................................................................ 22
4.4 Perceptueel systeem .................................................................................................................................. 22
4.4.1 Een volledige waarnemingstheorie .................................................................................................... 22
4.4.2 Gegevensgestuurde processen ........................................................................................................... 22
4.4.3 Conceptgestuurde processen* ........................................................................................................... 23
5 Geheugen .................................................................................................................................................... 24
5.1 Definitie: geheugen als parapluterm .......................................................................................................... 24
5.2 Verschillende geheugentypes* .................................................................................................................. 24
5.3 Eerste geheugenonderzoek ........................................................................................................................ 24
5.4 De drie essentiële functies van geheugen .................................................................................................. 24
5.4.1 Verwerkingsstadia .............................................................................................................................. 24
5.4.2 Oorzaken van niet-herinneren ........................................................................................................... 24
5.5 Hoe vormen we herinneringen?: de drie geheugenstadia ......................................................................... 25
5.5.1 Sensorisch geheugen .......................................................................................................................... 25
5.5.2 Kortetermijn- of werkgeheugen ......................................................................................................... 25
5.5.3 Langetermijngeheugen ....................................................................................................................... 26
5.5.4 Algemeen overzicht** ........................................................................................................................ 28
6 Functies van het geheugen .......................................................................................................................... 29
6.1 Werking van het geheugen ........................................................................................................................ 29
6.1.1 Encoderen ........................................................................................................................................... 29
1
, 6.1.2 Bewaren .............................................................................................................................................. 30
6.1.3 Ophalen .............................................................................................................................................. 31
6.2 Waarom laat ons geheugen ons in de steek?............................................................................................. 32
6.3 Toepassing: train je geheugen .................................................................................................................... 32
7 Leren ........................................................................................................................................................... 33
7.1 Inleiding ...................................................................................................................................................... 33
7.1.1 Definitie .............................................................................................................................................. 33
7.1.2 Habituatie en sensitisatie ................................................................................................................... 33
7.2 Klassieke conditionering ............................................................................................................................. 33
7.2.1 Terminologie* ..................................................................................................................................... 33
7.2.2 Appetitieve conditionering* ............................................................................................................... 34
7.2.3 Aversieve conditionering .................................................................................................................... 34
7.2.4 Belangrijke processen* ....................................................................................................................... 34
7.3 Operante conditionering ............................................................................................................................ 36
7.3.1 Skinner box of operante ruimte ......................................................................................................... 36
7.3.2 Terminologie* ..................................................................................................................................... 36
7.3.3 Shaping* ............................................................................................................................................. 37
7.3.4 Fading ................................................................................................................................................. 37
7.3.5 Bekrachtiging* .................................................................................................................................... 37
7.3.6 Bekrachtigingsschema’s & extinctie ................................................................................................... 37
7.3.7 Belonen vs. Straffen* .......................................................................................................................... 37
7.3.8 Klassieke vs. operante conditionering: samengevat .......................................................................... 38
7.4 Cognitief perspectief op leren .................................................................................................................... 38
7.4.1 Vormen ............................................................................................................................................... 39
8 Intelligentie ................................................................................................................................................. 40
8.1 Introductie .................................................................................................................................................. 40
8.2 Definitie en structuur ................................................................................................................................. 40
8.3 CHC-model Flanagan & McGrew, (1997) .................................................................................................... 40
8.3.1 Drie niveau’s (strata) .......................................................................................................................... 40
8.3.2 Onderverdeling ................................................................................................................................... 41
8.4 Geschiedenis .............................................................................................................................................. 42
8.4.1 Eerste golf (van denken over intelligentie): Kwantificatie van een algemeen niveau ........................ 42
8.4.2 Tweede golf: Klinische profielanalyse ................................................................................................ 42
8.4.3 Derde golf: Psychometrische profielanalyse ...................................................................................... 43
8.4.4 Overzicht ............................................................................................................................................. 43
8.5 Erfelijkheid versus omgeving ...................................................................................................................... 43
8.5.1 Nature VS nurture............................................................................................................................... 43
8.5.2 Erfelijkheid VS omgeving .................................................................................................................... 44
8.5.3 Tweelingonderzoek ............................................................................................................................ 44
8.6 Groepsverschillen ....................................................................................................................................... 44
8.6.1 Generatie: Flynn-effect ....................................................................................................................... 44
8.6.2 Leeftijd ................................................................................................................................................ 45
8.6.3 Geslacht .............................................................................................................................................. 45
8.6.4 Bevolkingsgroepen ............................................................................................................................. 45
9 Crossculturele visie op intelligentie ............................................................................................................. 47
9.1 Het begrip intelligentie: universeel of cultuurgebonden ........................................................................... 47
9.1.1 Wanneer is iemand intelligent? → internationaal onderzoek ........................................................... 47
9.1.2 Besluit ................................................................................................................................................. 47
9.2 Het meten van intelligentie ........................................................................................................................ 47
9.2.1 Cultuurgebondenheid van tests ......................................................................................................... 48
10 Ontwikkelingspsychologie ......................................................................................................................... 49
10.1 Introductie ................................................................................................................................................ 49
10.1.1 Een oriëntatie op de ontwikkelingspsychologie ............................................................................... 49
10.1.2 Theoretische perspectieven op ontwikkelingspsychologie .............................................................. 51
11 Cognitieve ontwikkeling van baby tot kleuter ........................................................................................... 54
11.1 Cognitieve ontwikkeling volgens Piaget** ............................................................................................... 54
11.1.1 Tendens tot adaptatie ...................................................................................................................... 54
2
, 11.1.2 Tendens tot organisatie .................................................................................................................... 54
11.1.3 Equilibrium ....................................................................................................................................... 54
11.1.4 Schema (= psychologische structuur) ............................................................................................... 55
11.1.5 Kritische kijk: meningen over Piaget................................................................................................. 55
11.2 De cognitieve ontwikkeling in de babytijd ............................................................................................... 55
11.2.1 Sensorimotorische stadium (0-24m) ................................................................................................ 56
11.2.2 Individuele verschillen in intelligentie: is de ene baby slimmer dan de andere? ............................. 57
11.2.3 Ontwikkelingstests............................................................................................................................ 57
11.3 De cognitieve ontwikkeling in de peuter- en kleutertijd: preoperationeel stadium* .............................. 57
11.3.1 Kenmerken ....................................................................................................................................... 57
11.3.2 Piaget: “taal en denken zijn met elkaar verbonden” ........................................................................ 58
11.3.3 Twee sub-stadia ................................................................................................................................ 58
11.3.4 Vier onvolkomenheden in het pre-operationeel denken ................................................................. 58
12 Cognitieve ontwikkeling van kind tot oudere ........................................................................................ 60
12.1 De cognitieve ontwikkeling in de schooltijd: concreet operationeel stadium* ....................................... 60
12.1.1 Denken met concreet materiaal ....................................................................................................... 60
12.1.2 Relatie tussen tijd en snelheid .......................................................................................................... 60
12.1.3 Conservatietaken correct oplossen .................................................................................................. 60
12.1.4 Classificatie ....................................................................................................................................... 60
12.1.5 Informatieverwerking in de schooltijd ............................................................................................. 60
12.2 Cognitieve ontwikkeling in de adolescentie: formeel operationeel stadium (12- …)* ............................. 61
12.2.1 Denken.............................................................................................................................................. 61
12.2.2 Ontwikkeling van het formeel-operationeel stadium ...................................................................... 61
12.2.3 De effecten van formele operaties op het denken van adolescenten ............................................. 61
12.2.4 De adolescent als het middelpunt van het universum ..................................................................... 61
12.2.5 Gender en prestaties in het hoger onderwijs ................................................................................... 62
12.3 De cognitieve ontwikkeling in de volwassenheid: postformeel denken* ................................................ 62
12.4 De cognitieve ontwikkeling in de oudere volwassenheid ........................................................................ 63
12.4.1 Deficitmodel ..................................................................................................................................... 63
12.4.2 Functietraining & Rust-roest-model ................................................................................................. 63
12.4.3 Competentiemodel ........................................................................................................................... 63
13 Sociale en persoonlijkheidsontwikkelingen van baby tot kleuter .............................................................. 65
13.1 De basis van sociaal gedrag in de babytijd ............................................................................................... 65
13.1.1 Emoties in de babytijd ...................................................................................................................... 65
13.1.2 De ontwikkeling van het ‘ik’ ............................................................................................................. 66
13.1.3 Social referencing* ........................................................................................................................... 66
13.1.4 Theory of mind* ............................................................................................................................... 66
13.2 Sociale ontwikkeling in de babytijd .......................................................................................................... 67
13.2.1 Hechting*.......................................................................................................................................... 67
13.2.2 De totstandkoming van hechting* ................................................................................................... 69
13.2.3 Interactie met baby’s: ontluikende relaties ...................................................................................... 69
13.3 Persoonlijkheidsontwikkeling in de babytijd* .......................................................................................... 70
13.3.1 Algemeen .......................................................................................................................................... 70
13.3.2 Temperament ................................................................................................................................... 70
13.3.4 Gender .............................................................................................................................................. 71
13.4 Sociale en persoonlijkheidsontwikkelingen in de peuter- en kleutertijd ................................................. 71
13.4.1 Wie ben ik? ....................................................................................................................................... 71
13.4.2 Vrienden en familie: het sociale leven van kleuters en peuters* ..................................................... 72
14 Sociale en persoonlijkheidsontwikkelingen bij kinderen en adolescenten ................................................. 74
14.1 Sociale en persoonlijkheidsontwikkeling in de schooltijd ........................................................................ 74
14.1.1 De ontwikkeling van het eigen ik ...................................................................................................... 74
14.1.2 Relaties: vriendschappen in de schooltijd* ...................................................................................... 76
14.1.3 Gender en vriendschap (segregatie van de seksen in de schooltijd)* .............................................. 76
14.2 Sociale en persoonlijkheidsontwikkeling in de adolescentie ................................................................... 77
14.2.1 Ontwikkelingstaken .......................................................................................................................... 77
14.2.2 Identiteit ........................................................................................................................................... 78
14.2.3 Relaties: familie en vrienden ............................................................................................................ 80
3
, 15 Sociale en persoonlijkheidsontwikkelingen bij volwassenen en ouderen .............................................. 82
15.1 De sociale en persoonlijkheidsontwikkeling in de volwassenheid ........................................................... 82
15.1.1 De psychosociale theorie van Erikson* ............................................................................................ 82
15.1.2 De partnerrelatie .............................................................................................................................. 82
15.1.3 Ouderschap....................................................................................................................................... 83
15.1.4 Ontwikkelingen in het gezin ............................................................................................................. 83
15.1.5 Beroepscarrière ........................................................................................................................ 84
15.1.6 Zelfbeeld en eigenwaarde* ...................................................................................................... 84
15.2 De oudere volwassenheid .................................................................................................................. 85
15.2.1 Beeldvorming over ouderen* ................................................................................................... 85
15.3 De sociale en persoonlijkheidsontwikkeling bij ouderen ................................................................... 85
15.3.1 De psychosociale theorie van Erikson ...................................................................................... 85
15.3.2 Het grootouderschap ............................................................................................................... 85
15.3.3 Verlies en rouw/levenseinde* .................................................................................................. 87
15.4 Sociale en persoonlijkheidsontwikkelingen: samengevat .................................................................. 87
16 Motorische ontwikkeling ........................................................................................................................... 88
16.1 Geboorte en complicaties bij de geboorte ............................................................................................... 88
16.1.1 Geboorte: van foetus tot neonaat ............................................................................................ 88
16.1.2 Complicaties bij geboorte ................................................................................................................. 88
16.2 Motorische en fysieke ontwikkeling doorheen de levensloop .......................................................... 89
16.2.1 Babytijd ..................................................................................................................................... 89
16.2.2 Peuter- en kleutertijd ............................................................................................................... 90
16.2.3 Schooltijd .................................................................................................................................. 91
16.2.4 Adolescentie ............................................................................................................................. 92
16.2.5 Volwassenen ............................................................................................................................. 93
16.2.6 Oudere volwassenen* ...................................................................................................................... 94
17 Schrijfmotorische ontwikkeling ................................................................................................................. 95
17.1 Is leren schrijven nog zinvol? ............................................................................................................. 95
17.2 Waarom moet ik als logopedist of audioloog iets over schrijven weten? ......................................... 95
17.3 Wat is schrijven nu eigenlijk? ................................................................................................................... 95
17.3.1 Het begrip schrijven* ................................................................................................................ 95
17.3.2 Deelvaardigheden van schrijven ....................................................................................................... 95
17.3.3 Schrijfmotoriek ................................................................................................................................. 96
17.4 Voorwaarden om te kunnen schrijven ..................................................................................................... 97
17.4.1 Algemene voorwaarden ........................................................................................................... 97
17.4.2 Specifieke voorwaarden ........................................................................................................... 98
17.4.3 Motorische voorwaarden ................................................................................................................. 99
17.5 De 4 fase van het schrijfonderwijs ........................................................................................................... 99
17.5.1 Krabbelen ................................................................................................................................. 99
17.5.2 Voorbereidend schrijven ........................................................................................................ 100
17.5.3 Aanvankelijk schrijven ............................................................................................................ 100
17.5.4 Voortgezet schrijven ............................................................................................................... 100
17.6 Hoe kan je schrijven evalueren? ...................................................................................................... 100
18 Diagnostiek motoriek, lateralisatie, schrijfmotoriek ................................................................................ 101
18.1 Wat kan ik als logopedist/audioloog observeren? ................................................................................. 101
18.1.1 Motorisch gebied.................................................................................................................... 101
18.2 Waarom en wanneer onderzoek? .......................................................................................................... 104
18.3 Diagnostiek ............................................................................................................................................. 105
18.3.1 Motorische diagnostiek .......................................................................................................... 105
18.3.2 Lateralisatie .................................................................................................................................... 107
18.3.3 Schrijfmotorisch onderzoek ............................................................................................................ 108
19 Therapie: Schrijfmotoriek ........................................................................................................................ 111
19.1 Schrijfmotorisch profiel .......................................................................................................................... 111
19.2 Schrijfmotorische therapie ..................................................................................................................... 112
19.2.1 Het trainen van de specifieke schrijfvoorwaarden ......................................................................... 112
19.2.2 Het trainen van de motorische voorwaarden ................................................................................ 112
19.2.3 Interventies met betrekking tot de schrijfhouding ......................................................................... 113
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