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Summary IB History: The Move to Global War Notes
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Comprehensive IB History notes from a 44/45 student including all the content for Prescribed Subject 3 (The Move to Global War)
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Global War: Case study 1 - Japanese expansion in East Asia (1931–1941)Historical background
Commodore Matthew Perry
- For most of the Edo period (1603-1867), Japan deliberately isolated itself from the rest of the world, fearing the
influence from foreign culture or beliefs
- In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry (US Navy), arrived at Japan with several steam ships to open up trade
between the two countries through “Gunboat diplomacy”
- “Gunboat diplomacy” - negotiating/foreign policy while displaying superior naval power and force
- Having watched China’s defeat and consequent humiliation to Britain in the First Opium War a decade earlier,
the shogun agreed to sign the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854
- This agreement ended 220 years of Japanese seclusion, established diplomatic relations with the US, and
opened Japanese ports to American trade
The Meiji Restoration
- The impact of the Opium Wars on China and Commodore Perry’s 'gunboat diplomacy' convinced Japanese elites
that they needed to pursue an extensive program of reforms based on Western models to modernise Japan
- Meiji restoration was an era of social, political, economic and military reforms
- A more modern social hierarchy
- Market economy similar to western models to allow industrialization
- Encouraged nationalism and patriotism - ‘rich country, strong military’
- Japanese military borrowed German military tactics and built up their navy with help from the British
- Government became a limited form of democracy, with a Diet (legislature, but simply to assist decisions)
- However, the dominant powers of the Emperor remained - Emperor made his own decisions and the
military answered to him directly (Emperor as commander-in-chief of the Military)
Causes of expansion
The impact of Japanese nationalism and militarism on foreign policy
Japan’s destiny as leader of Asia
- The Meiji restoration resulted in Japan’s high military and industrial prowess
- This, alongside Shinto-fueled nationalism, called for the acquisition of new lands
- Shinto nationalism - the belief that Japan is created by the Sun Goddess, Emperor descended from the gods, and
so superior to all others (even officially incorporated the rising Sun into the national flag)
➔ Foreign policy - Japan proclaimed that its destiny was to become the leading nation in Asia
Invasion and occupation of Korea (1876-1904)
- To imitate Western powers, and to get resources to industrialise, Japan had to colonise other countries
- Korea was geographically close, weak due to lack of reforms, and rich in natural resources (eg. coal and iron)
- Forced Korea (Gunboat Diplomacy) to sign an unfair trade treaty (similar to the one Japan signed with the US)
The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95)
- Japan easily won, seizing many regions of China and forcing some economic dominance over China, positioning
itself as a colonial world power in Asia
- Tripled Intervention (Germany, Russia and France) were concerned about the growing Japanese power, and
forced the return of these regions - this was immensely frustrating and humiliating to Japan, and consequently
had a huge impact on militarism and nationalism
- Intense industrialisation between 1896 and 1904 to decrease reliance on iron and steel imports
- The victories also increased morality and validated their strength, leading to a thirst for further conquest
The Russo-Japanese War (1904–05)
- Japan went to war with Russia over competing interests in Manchuria and Korea, and for revenge (intervention)
, - Japan secured many victories, and both sides were open to negotiation - Russia experiencing social and political
unrest, while Japan was beginning to accumulate foreign debt
- Signed the Treaty of Portsmouth - Japan gained rights over Korea, South Manchurian Railway and some islands
- Though they did not gain much territories, Japan’s victory over a Western force showed Japan’s strength, gaining
them the respect of the West and the admiration of other Asian countries
World War I (Paris Peace Conference)
- On the winning side of WW1, Japan’s new territorial gains were confirmed in the Treaty of Versailles
- However, Japanese delegation left the 1919 Paris Peace Conference disappointed that it had not gained more
- Japanese attempts to introduce a ‘racial equality’ clause was rejected - demand that Japan was treated equally
- The majority of citizens felt that they were humiliated and that their representatives were too submissive
- This outcome accelerated the development of militarism, as the ‘discriminatory’ agreement from the foreign
powers fueled Japanese contempt and the conference outcome labelled the government as incapable and weak
- These were very similar to Italy post-WW1
- This caused them to turn towards the military in the hopes of glorifying their nation
Japanese domestic issues
Internationalism
- Shidehara diplomacy of the 1920s - Japan committed itself to international cooperation and peaceful means to
develop its economy, by maintaining a good trading relationship with the USA
- Participated in the Washington Conference of 1921-22, signed multiple multilateral treaties
- Four-Power Treaty - Japan, the USA, Britain and France would consult with each other if any of their territorial
possessions in Asia were threatened
- Nine-Power Treaty - agreed to respect Chinese independence and sovereignty, and return Shandong Province
- Five-Power Naval Limitation Treaty - agreed to restrain its building of battleships and aircraft carriers, and ending
Japanese plans to expand the Imperial Navy (however, the restraint was of unequal ratio to Japan) 5:5:3:1:1
- However, some of these international agreements faced increasing opposition within the Japanese military
Opposition to Internationalism
- During the 1920s, Japan became domestically more liberal and democratic - Taishō Democracy (1921–27) was a
period of relative liberalism in Japan
- However, the passage of Immigration Act in the US (which excluded “Asiatics” from immigrating there) caused
increasing opposition to the Japanese internationalist foreign policy, especially as there had been a big wave of
Japanese immigration to the USA since 1900
- The Japanese military was frustrated by the restrictions imposed on them, considering the Five-Power and
Four-Power Treaty to be a British-led attempt to contain Japanese expansion and ambition
- Death of the Taishō Emperor in 1926 and the succession of his eldest son, Hirohito, helped create further
nationalism and the belief that Hirohito was a ‘living god’
Showa fascism
- “Shōwa fascism” - a more aggressive foreign policy pursued after liberal democracy was brought to an end by
military insubordination towards the government and the outbreak of the Great Depression during 1929
- Shōwa fascists were backed by the Zaibatsu (influential and large industrial corporations, increased in power due
to economic depression), who had economic investments in China
- The Japanese military successfully defied the government by refusing to discipline the Kwantung Army when
they assassinated Zhang, a Manchurian warlord, to defend Japanese interests in Manchuria - realised they did
not have to listen to the civilian government
- Gekokujo - when someone of lower position overthrows their superior using political means if they are
not in the best interests of the country
- The Great Depression damaged faith in the US as a reliable trading partner, as raised tariffs on exports to the US
, affected Japanese products hard
- The successive Japanese governments struggled to deal with the Great Depression, allowing the military to gain
more power over foreign policy, pushing the country in a more expansionist direction again to deal with these
economic problems
Three main groups of power - the Government (corrupt, weak); the Diet (corrupt, weak); and the Military (strong!)
- In times of turbulence, the people turn towards more extreme means (the military)
Drivers of Japanese Foreign Policy (expansionism)
- Fear of being exploited by other countries - industrialization gave them the ability and power to militarise (unlike
China), led to increase in developing infrastructure and industrialization of military, extreme economic growth -
however, to industrialise, they needed resources that they could only acquire from expansion
- Social Struggles and economic issues - the economy was very unstable, with rapid cycles of growth and collapses
(handled badly by the government), the Great Depression led to a severe collapse and the hunger and poverty
led to unrest and people turned to the military for solution
- Ultranationalism - extreme nationalism, increased by the perceived injustices from the Western Powers and the
US Immigration Act leading to a growing resentment towards the west, propaganda ingrained in education
- Growth of military power - people turned to military due to the fragile democracy (corrupt diet) and unstable
economy, the military used distrust against the government to promote expansionism
Japanese expansionism by 1931 can be best explained by the industrialisation and growth of military power promoting
nationalist idealism and expansionism as the ultimate solution to restoring economic security in Japan
Political instability in China
Chinese Instability - Warlord Era
- Following the fall of the Qing Dynasty, China was divided between various entities fighting for power
- The nation was divided between two main parties
- 國民黨 (Kuomintang, KMT) led by Chiang Kai-Shek
- 民主黨 (Communist Party, CCP) led by Mao ZeDong
- Chinese instability emboldened Japanese militarists and nationalists to expand in Asia as they felt China would
not pose a threat or object to Manchurian invasion, too busy with internal conflicts
- Chiang Kai-Shek launched the Northern Expedition - and attempt to unify China in 1926, by the First United
Front – combined forces of the KMT and CCP under Chiang
- The KMT successfully conquered many warlord, and later broke their alliance with the CCP, attacking them, and
uniting China under Chiang
- The KMT’s success worried Japan, who feared loss of investments in China and Manchuria
- Positive Policy - began treating Manchuria as separate from China and acting independently for Japan’s best
interests (no longer interested in international input), installed the Kwantung Army (which had many
insubordinate officers) to safeguard Japan’s investments
- Zhang Zoulin was the most powerful warlord in Manchuria, and was supported by the Japanese Government in
return for allowing them to develop railways and businesses in Manchuria
- When the Northern Expedition advanced into Manchuria, Zhang retreated
- Kwantung Army officers, who wanted to prevent Manchuria from falling under Chinese control, felt that the
government’s policy of allowing Zhang large autonomy was wrong and assassinated him in 1928 (Gekokujo)
- Due to overwhelming public support of this action, the government failed to punish their insubordination
- They hoped that Zhang’s death would allow them to directly annex Manchuria
- However, Zhang’s son allied himself with the KMT and united Manchuria with China
Japanese domestic issues: political and economic issues, and their impact on foreign relations
● Radical nationalism
, ○ National humiliation (Tripartite intervention, Washington and London Naval treaties, refusal of racial
equality clause etc.)
○ Military successes (Korea, Sino-Japanese war, Russo-Japanese war, WW1)
● Economic instability
○ Economic cycles of growth and collapse - WW1 trade boom → Post-war economic stress → 1923 Tokyo
earthquake and fire → Increased loans and prosperity → 1927 bank failures → massive unemployment
→ 1929 Great Depression
○ Great Depression led to trade barriers, cutting Japan (which relied mainly on exports) off from its
greatest trading partner (US)
○ Economic instability led to domination of Zaibatsus (monopolicies), which swayed the Diet to ensure
favourable economic policies
○ Political instability due to economic issues → strikes and calls for reform
○ Military controlled government, which dramatically increased military spending and exacerbated the
economic issues, causing expansion to be seen as the solution
● Political instability
○ Increase in support for and fear of communism (1920s-30s)
○ Showa Restoration - many wanted to give the Showa Emperor full power to rule, to remove corruption
and wage war with the USSR/communism
○ Mass unemployment due to economic instability led to many joining the military and becoming a strong,
conservative/ultranationalist force
○ The Toseiha faction took control of the government (supported by the Emperor and others as a better
alternative than more radical factions), which led to reorganising the economy, increasing military
spending and suppressing opposition
Japanese invasion of Manchuria and northern China (1931)
The Mukden Incident
What Bombing of a railway owned by Japan’s South Manchuria Railway staged by Japanese personnel as an
excuse to invade and occupy Manchuria
When / Who 18 September 1931, Lt. Suemori Kawamoto of the Independent Garrison Unit 29th Infantry Unit
How The Lt. placed a small amount of dynamite near the railway and detonated it at around 10:20 pm, it was
far away enough to not do any major damage with only around 1.5 metres damaged on each side (a
train passed over the damaged rails hours later without incident)
Why The Japanese Imperial Army accused Chinese troops of an attack on Japan, and used it as an excuse to
open fire on the Chinese Garrison and invade Manchuria
Consequence The Japanese military leaders were as surprised as others, as the bombing was not ordered (garrison
acted on their own)
The Government pretended that they ordered it to keep public image of their power
The war and invasion was widely supported by the Japanese public, so that the government could not
rein in soldiers or put them on trial
➔ Government forced to commit to expansion, China is invaded and taken over
Reasons for the Manchurian Crisis
- Resources - Japan required raw materials for industrialisation, and Manchruria had many resources that Japan
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