This is a summary/notes of the course Selected Issues: sexual offending, prostitution and human trafficking, taught by Gert Vermeulen in the Master in Criminology and Law. For these notes, all lessons were reviewed and typed down extensively in English. The booster session is also included. In othe...
MODULE 1: TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS .................................................................................. 3
1. LEGAL APPROACHES .......................................................................................................................3
2. GENDER-NEUTRAL CRIMINAL LAW APPROACH .....................................................................................3
3. CURRENT MAINSTREAM CRIMINAL LAW DEFINITION .............................................................................4
3.1. first element: movement .......................................................................................................4
3.2. second (core!) element: means .............................................................................................5
3.3. third element: envisaged exploitation ...................................................................................5
4. “KNOWING USE” OF SERVICES OFFERED BY THB VICTIMS .......................................................................6
5. LIABILITY LEGAL PERSONS ................................................................................................................7
6. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN CRIMINAL MATTERS .........................................................................7
7. TRAFFICKING VERSUS SMUGGLING ....................................................................................................8
8. THB AND MIGRATION POLICY ...........................................................................................................8
9. SMUGGLING, CARRIER LIABILITY, FALSE DOCUMENTS ............................................................................8
10. LABOUR AND SOCIAL SECURITY LAW PERSPECTIVE ................................................................................9
11. INTRA-MIGRATION .......................................................................................................................10
11.1. free movement, including for work..................................................................................10
11.2. posting of workers ...........................................................................................................11
12. TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS .....................................................................................................11
12.1. policies .............................................................................................................................11
MODULE 2: RAPE, SEXUAL ASSAULT AND SEXUAL HARASSMENT................................................... 15
1. RAPE .........................................................................................................................................15
1.1. definitions (ESB) ..................................................................................................................15
1.2. consent, rape myths and reporting .....................................................................................16
1.2.1. given consent or some form of non-consent? ........................................................................................... 16
1.2.2. rape myths.................................................................................................................................................. 17
1.2.3. rape reporting ............................................................................................................................................ 17
1.3. virtual rape: rape or sexual harassment? ............................................................................17
2. SEXUAL ASSAULT: DEFINITION (ESB) ................................................................................................18
3. SEXUAL HARASSMENT ...................................................................................................................19
3.1. definitions ............................................................................................................................19
3.2. sexual harassment among adolescents...............................................................................19
MODULE 3: PROSTITUTION AND SEX WORK .................................................................................. 20
1. LEGAL INSTRUMENTS UN ..............................................................................................................20
2. POLICY DOCUMENTS COE AND EU ...................................................................................................21
3. DIFFERENT FRAMES ......................................................................................................................21
3.1. victim frame ........................................................................................................................21
3.2. anti-social order frame ........................................................................................................21
3.3. agency frame.......................................................................................................................22
4. DOMESTIC/MUNICIPAL APPROACHES/MODELS ..................................................................................22
5. PREVENTION THB AND NUISANCE IN PROSTITUTION SECTOR ...............................................................23
6. (SELF)REGULATION BONA FIDE PROSTITUTION MARKET ......................................................................24
7. “ISO 69” ...................................................................................................................................24
8. LEGALIZATION OF SELF-REGULATION VIA QUALITY STANDARDS .............................................................24
MODULE 4: CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE AND ABUSE OF POWER OR AUTHORITY .................................... 25
1
, 1. GENERAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK (COE AND EU) ....................................................................................25
2. CRIMINAL LAW APPROACH CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE................................................................................25
2.1. age of sexual consent ..........................................................................................................25
2.1.1. definitions................................................................................................................................................... 25
2.1.2. single/multi-stage system .......................................................................................................................... 26
2.2. child sexual abuse ...............................................................................................................27
2.3. jurisdiction ...........................................................................................................................27
2.4. disclosure – statutes of limitations ......................................................................................28
2.5. non-prior conviction ............................................................................................................29
3. INTRA-FAMILIAL ABUSE – DENIAL ....................................................................................................29
4. EXTRA-FAMILIAL ABUSE.................................................................................................................30
MODULE 5: SEXUAL EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN, CSAM AND GROOMING ................................... 31
1. GENERAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................................................31
2. SEXUAL EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN ...............................................................................................31
2.1. definitions ............................................................................................................................31
2.2. child sex tourism (cst) ..........................................................................................................33
3. CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE MATERIAL (CSAM) ..........................................................................................35
3.1. definitions ............................................................................................................................35
3.2. role of interpol and europol.................................................................................................37
3.3. notice and takedown system ...............................................................................................38
4. GROOMING ................................................................................................................................39
4.1. definition .............................................................................................................................39
4.2. (internet) behaviour ............................................................................................................40
5. PEDOSEXUALITY VERSUS PEDOPHILIA ...............................................................................................40
MODULE 6: BESTIALITY, ANIMAL PORN, BDSM AND NECROPHILIA ................................................ 42
1. BESTIALITY AND ANIMAL PORN .......................................................................................................42
1.1. bestiality ..............................................................................................................................42
1.2. animal porn .........................................................................................................................42
2. BDSM AND SM ............................................................................................................................42
3. NECROPHILIA ..............................................................................................................................43
MODULE 7: PORNOGRAPHY, EXHIBITIONISM, REVENGE PORN AND VOYEURISM .......................... 44
MODULE 8: AI AND ROBOTS .......................................................................................................... 44
1. AI AND ROBOTS: IN GENERAL .........................................................................................................44
2. AI AND ROBOTS: SEXUAL OFFENCES .................................................................................................45
,SEXUAL OFFENDING, PROSTITUTION AND HUMAN
TRAFFICKING
MODULE 1: TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS
1. LEGAL APPROACHES
This is the legal framework for trafficking in human beings. We are only focusing on international instruments on
3 levels (= 3 key instruments):
1) UN
- 2000 Trafficking Protocol to UN TOC Convention
- 2000 Smuggling Protocol to UN TOC Convention
- 1950 Convention on THB and exploitation prostitution
It is remarkable that the UN makes a difference between trafficking and smuggling! Because often on the political
level, they are used as synonyms. It is easier to get attention if you talk about trafficking instead of smuggling
because trafficking is involuntary and in the case of smuggling, migrants pay a person to get them to a place. In
the case of trafficking, the migrants are victims and in the case of smuggling, they are technically clients. They
are in both cases extremely vulnerable.
2) CoE
- 2005 Warsaw Convention on THB
It is the main instrument on human trafficking of the CoE
3) EU
- 2002 FD on THB
- 2004 residence permit directive for THB victims
- 2011 directive on THB, repealing the 2002 FD
This is a follow-up instrument of an earlier instrument and is a criminal law instrument
The EU became competent in regulating human trafficking and has been building up the regulations slowly. The
instruments became stronger with the growing competence of the EU.
The States that have ratified the conventions are bound by the conventions, so they need to do what the
conventions stipulate. These conventions do stipulate that the States ratifying these conventions need to
criminalize human trafficking. The 3 levels each oblige criminalizing human trafficking and hopefully the
definition of what human trafficking is, overlaps to a certain extent. Otherwise we have a problem and especially
the countries who belong to the three levels, like Belgium and all the EU-countries.
2. GENDER-NEUTRAL CRIMINAL LAW APPROACH
3
, Criminal law is in most cases gender-neutral and it is important that we talk gender-neutral when we talk about
the legislation on this topic. Human trafficking is a phenomenon that not only targets women, but also men.
However, we must not forget that women are particular vulnerable, so we can’t deny that there is:
- Feminization of poverty: in countries of origin poverty may hit women harder
- Gender discrimination
- Lack of educational/professional opportunities in home countries: in different countries women are denied
essential rights in society
There is specific attention to the (criminal) status of exploitation in prostitution, where there are more women
than men in the industry. However, gender-neutrality is very important, because there are also men/boys in
prostitution and most of the child victims are male.
Certain countries will use and deploy anti-trafficking legislation to shape their prostitution policy and anti-
prostitution policy. Both will sometimes overlap in certain countries, which is unhealthy because trafficking and
what makes trafficking trafficking is that it is really a human rights violation because it’s abusive and exploitative.
It does take away and denies the right to decide for your own, because people are deceived, … Some countries
will label a lot of sex work as intrinsically exploitative and therefore trafficking.
For some countries, like Sweden, gender is a false rationale for criminalization clients of prostitution. They started
criminalizing clients of sex workers (= radical feminization), even if sex workers consent and choose to (= men
are the problem in prostitution because they’re the clients and need to be criminalized). They used the
inspiration of a directive of the Warsaw Convention to work more on the demand side. Of course that is
important because if there was no demand side, there would be no trafficking in human beings for this purpose.
But we see that this is only picked up in the sexual sphere, not in the economic sphere. This leads to a perspective
where men are considered as the cause of sexual exploitation while research had pointed out that they are not
looking for exploitation. Working on the demand side of sexual exploitation is great, but it has to work in on all
the factors of the demand side, not only the clients. So the framework of the radical feminists is maybe a little
too narrow.
Trafficking of human beings expanded from the sexual sphere to the labour sphere. This means that most of the
trafficking in Europe is in the labour industry and not in the sex industry, where there is a significant number of
male victims. As stated before, the Swedish and radical feminists deny the fact that there are also male victims
of sexual exploitation.
3. CURRENT MAINSTREAM CRIMINAL LAW DEFINITION
The definition of trafficking in human beings is discussed below, in which 3 elements are important. The 3 levels
have the crime of trafficking in common, where if the 3 elements are present there is human trafficking. This
then needs to be labelled, criminalized and sanctioned in a proper fashion, because the minimum requirements
are met. The only out of the three, which also imposes minimum thresholds for the maximum sanctions is the
EU-level. It is the only block that has the competence to prescribe minimum levels for the maximum sanctions.
The UN and the CoE only stick to the requirement criminalize and leaving it to the member states to chose the
level of sanction.
3.1. FIRST ELEMENT: MOVEMENT
4
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