PSY 101 MODULE 1 - 8 EXAM REVIEW STUDY GUIDE PORTAGE LEARNING

PSY 101 MODULE 1 - 8 EXAM REVIEW STUDY GUIDE PORTAGE LEARNING PSY 101 MODULE 1 - 8 EXAM REVIEW STUDY GUIDE PORTAGE LEARNING Module 1 exam review What Is Lifespan Development? A note before we begin: This course has external links to informational websites and videos. The information on these pages is part of the course and will be incorporated into the exams. Make sure to follow each link and read the material or watch the video as specified in the course material. Lifespan Development Throughout the human life span, numerous changes occur. These changes have physical, social, cognitive, and emotional dimensions. Lifespan development studies these changes from conception to death by investigating major periods of development. These major periods include: • prenatal development • infancy and toddlerhood • early childhood • middle childhood • adolescence • early adulthood • middle adulthood • late adulthood 1. Lifelong In studying these major periods, experts in lifespan development note some distinctive features of human development. First, development is lifelong. Early research and theory in human development primarily focused on children. However, developmental science increasingly emphasizes the major changes that occur throughout adolescence and adulthood, showing that it is important to consider development (or change) at each period. 2. Multidirectional Secondly, development is multidirectional. In the paragraph above, development is loosely defined as change. However, change can be good or bad. It can even be both, simultaneously. Thus, at every period, an individual might be improving in some ways and falling behind in others. We even have terms for these different aspects of change. For example, aging, or the process of becoming old, is something that everyone faces if they live long enough. There is a surprising amount of mystery in science regarding what precisely triggers aging. We would typically use this term for adults. While children technically are getting older as well, we wouldn’t use the term “aging” to refer to a child. Aging is somewhat different from growth, which implies physical change (such as growing taller). Maturation, on the other hand, can be physical, emotional, and/or cognitive. Maturation has to do with something becoming more developed and more advanced. For example, our brains don’t grow in size across the lifespan, but they do mature (due to physical changes occurring within the brain) across childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood. In everyday conversation, we may speak of someone becoming more mature; this type of improvement in emotional regulation is a good example of emotional maturation. Multidirectional development can be seen in adults who are aging and facing some physical declines but are becoming more emotionally mature at the same time. 3. Multidisciplinary Thirdly, the study of development is multidisciplinary. You might be taking this course because of your training in the health sciences, social sciences, or education. Each of these professional fields has a major stake in understanding human development. In addition, each of these fields is influenced by major contributions from professionals in the remaining fields. 4. Multidimensional Finally, development is multidimensional. As stated earlier, we experience changes in the following dimensions: biological, social, emotional, and cognitive. In addition, moral development is an important area of consideration. In summary, development is multidimensional, multidisciplinary, multidirectional, and lifelong. Theoretical Perspectives in Lifespan Development A. Controversies in Lifespan Development While few students are thrilled at the prospect of studying psychological theory, it is extremely important to understand what directs knowledge in the field. In addition, theoretical perspectives are always significant portions of outcome tests (for example, CLEP, N-CLEX) in development! Watch the video below as you study the material in this module. We will begin with a few controversies in the field. While these controversies are by no means solved, most experts acknowledge the importance of considering both sides. Why is it relevant to discuss these controversies? One reason is because various professionals may lean toward one or the other perspective, and it is important to be aware of these theoretical leanings. In addition, and this is particularly the case with the first controversy, researchers spend a significant amount of time teasing out the relative contributions of the various sides as they seek to understand specific topics in human development. 1. Nature vs. Nurture The nature/nurture issue in human development is one of the most important considerations in the field. At issue is what causes people to be the way they are. Are they born that way? People leaning toward that perspective rely on “nature,” or biology, to explain human behavior. Or, do people change due to their environments, such as parental influence, socioeconomic status, or level of education? These explanations fall under “nurture.” As you can see, both sides are necessary for understanding development. Yet, some professionals, due to their interest and expertise, may lean toward one or the other perspective. 2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity This controversy has to do with the process of change. Is development continuous? If so, then the various stages of development gradually flow into one another. Sometimes it might be hard to even discern where one stage stops and another starts. But if development is discontinuous, then stages are distinct. One definitely ends before the other begins. Historically, as we’ll learn shortly, a discontinuous perspective prevailed. More recently, development is viewed more as a continuum. However, depending on the type of development being discussed, it is helpful to know that both types of change might be possible. B. Major Theorists and Theories Have you heard of the following theorists: Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson? While they are only a few of the classic theorists in lifespan development, they were some of the most influential. Each originated stage theories of human development. We begin with a brief discussion of Freud’s psychodynamic theories. 1. Sigmund Freud and the Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud described five stages of development, each of which involves a conflict and a fixation with an area of the body that is associated with sexual gratification. Terms from this theory are really part of Western culture now. For example, being “anal” and speaking of “phallic symbols” both harken back to Freud. The following quote from R.R. Rice describes and interacts with Freud's stages: Freud posited that our personalities develop based on the interaction and conflict between the id, ego, and superego. The id is the most basic and first part of personality to emerge. It consists of our unconscious impulses that demand immediate fulfillment. It operates on the pleasure principle: Anything desired by the id must be for immediate pleasure. According to Freud, this is the part of personality that we are born with. The desire for immediate fulfillment is balanced by the ego, which operates according to the reality principle. This function of personality is not inborn but develops as children learn that not all desires can be fulfilled, or even if they can, might be fulfilled after a delay. The ego operates in the conscious, then, and addresses how the real world impacts the desires of the id. The superego is the final function of personality, developing by the time a child is school-aged. The superego is the child’s internalization of social norms and standards. As the ego is caught between the id’s impulses and the superego’s moral standards, it must attempt to balance the conflict between the other two functions, as well as the conflict between the internal life and the realities of the external world. In a well-functioning adult, this balance works. However, that balance between competing impulses is not always easy to achieve. Personality development progresses through stages that are named after the bodily area from which a person of a particular age centers her pleasure and enjoyment. Either deriving too much pleasure or getting too little pleasure in a particular stage can cause a person to become stuck (or fixated, to use Freud’s language) as we seek to recreate the pleasure, or to address the fact that we were deprived during that stage’s pleasures. We will address what Freud suggested are the primary developmental tasks of these stages, as well as where he thought problems could develop. Oral Stage (Birth - 18 months): In the oral stage, children derive their primary pleasure through their mouths. Their major developmental task from birth to approximately 18 months is to grow and begin to understand the world. They do that by investigating whether or not new things are food—everything goes into a baby’s mouth, and they are easily soothed by sucking, so pacifiers provide a pleasurable experience for young children. Of course, the central activity that provides pleasure to children in this stage is nursing. Children in this stage are primarily functioning in response to their id impulses. If they derive too much pleasure in this stage (for example, they are allowed to breastfeed for a long time and are weaned late) or too little pleasure (they are weaned early), they will become fixated and not progress fully to healthy adult development. Instead, their personality will be one of dependency on others and general neediness as they seek to recreate the initial comfort they found when all of their needs were taken care of by their mother. Behavioral indicators that an adult has a fixated oral personality might also be smoking or chewing gum or constantly biting one’s fingernails. These are reversions to seeking oral pleasure. Anal Stage (18 months - 3 years): During the anal stage, children’s pleasure moves from an oral focus about feeding to a focus on the anus, as the primary developmental task shifts to toilet training. Children derive pleasure from learning to control their bodies, and by extension, to control the environment around them. They can choose to eliminate their bowels or not, and so gain control of themselves and their environment. Many parents will remember times when their potty-training child made pronouncements about needing the bathroom on a car trip and the frantic search for a place to stop that then ensues: The child is definitely in control of the environment in that case. Difficulties with toilet training, whether training too late or traumatically too early can lead to anal fixations, which are also about control. For example, an anal retentive personality might have a high need for orderliness and cleanliness in his environment, whereas an anal expulsive personality might exert control over her surroundings by leaving her belongings scattered and messy. In both cases these are issues of control of the environment. Phallic Stage (3 years - 5 years): During this stage of development, the zone from which pleasure is derived is the genitalia, specifically the penis. Boys and girls are both beginning to explore their bodies and are learning about differences in anatomy. The focus of this stage, then, is on boys’ anatomy. According to Freud, once girls realize that boys have a penis and they don’t, girls experience penis envy because they are missing this significant feature. Once boys realize they have a penis and girls don’t, they come to believe that girls must have lost their penis, and so become overly focused on keeping theirs. In order to work through this, boys go through what Freud called Oedipal conflict, a series of steps where boys turn their affections toward their mothers and desire them sexually. Boys are fearful that their fathers will be angered by their competition for her affection, and so boys undergo castration anxiety where they fear that they will be emasculated by their fathers. In order to deal with this anxiety, boys recognize that they cannot compete against their fathers, and thus begin to identify with their fathers in order to adopt an appropriate male role. It is the internalization of the external standards of masculinity that helps boys to develop a superego. Girls do not navigate this pathway during the phallic stage, instead focusing on their lack of a penis and blaming their mothers who are also missing a penis for their lack, beginning the process of the Electra conflict. According to psychodynamic theory, girls move from an attachment to their mother to experiencing deep affection for and attachment to their fathers, leading to some of the same competition and fear that boys in this stage experience. Girls ultimately resolve this conflict by looking to their mothers as a model for how to be a woman, ultimately incorporating those external standards into their sense of what it means to be a girl. As an aside, since girls do not go through the Oedipal conflict, in Freud’s estimation girls had a less firmly developed superego and consequently a weaker moral compass. For both boys and girls, successful navigation of the phallic stage will lead to the development of the superego that helps them repress their sexual desires. Fixation in the phallic stage is likely to result in different outcomes for boys and girls. For boys, it will stem from unsuccessful resolution of the Oedipal conflict so that they are overly focused on masculinity. For girls who unsuccessfully resolve their penis envy, their continued desire for a penis will cause them to be emasculating; they will attempt to cut men down emotionally and socially. Latency Stage (5 years - puberty): According to Freud, once the phallic stage is navigated, children enter a period of latency, where no new psychological challenges or conflicts emerge. Rather, children focus on developing same- sex friendships throughout elementary school and developing interests throughout those school years. Genital Stage (puberty - adulthood): Assuming that a person has successfully navigated the first three stages, once puberty is reached the person enters the genital stage. Although the area of focus for pleasure is the genitals, it is quite different from the phallic stage. The difference here is that mutual genital pleasure is the focus, rather than just male sexual anatomy. The genital stage, then, is about healthy relationships with others and with productive work. The genital stage of personality focuses on our healthy adult growth. Although there are definitely issues of sexuality raised by Freud’s theory below, you can see that an individual’s transition through these phases is also about more than just sexuality. Freud’s psychodynamic approach demonstrates a broader theory about growth, starting with complete dependency in infancy and moving into mature functioning and productivity as we age (Rice, 2020). Many theorists and researchers have critiqued these stages. For instance, many have noted that Freud lumps adolescents and adults together in the final stage and is uninterested in exploring additional development. However, a lifespan perspective to development notes the very important changes that occur after adolescence. Freud was a product of his time, which was a period in which people assumed that few developmental changes occurred after adolescence. This has now been shown to be incorrect; a number of important changes occur in adulthood, and some of these changes will be covered in this course. Other researchers take issue with Freud’s research methods, stating that Freud’s particular clinical sample and biased analysis call the stages into question. Since he only studied individuals seeking psychoanalysis for a variety of mental conditions, many question whether his stages are applicable to normal, healthy development, or whether they primarily reflect what might occur in a patient sample. However, they are still relevant to discuss for their historical importance and their current influence today. 2. Erik Erikson and the Psychosocial Stages of Development Erik Erikson described eight stages of human development, ranging from infancy to late adulthood. Erikson integrated social experiences extensively into his stage theory. Thus, they are most aptly described as psychosocial stages. Read the detailed description of the stages. (Links to an external site.) It’s recommended that you watch the videos and take notes on the content for study purposes. After you’ve done this, you can continue with this module. You hopefully noticed that each of Erikson’s stages reflects a crisis. This is similar to Freud’s stages, where either adaptive or maladaptive outcomes are possible at each stage. Each theorist was at one point in the psychodynamic school of thought, which emphasizes the unconscious and early childhood experiences. However, Erikson in many ways moved beyond a strictly psychodynamic approach. Other differences that you may have noted between the two theories are the lack of sexual content in Erikson’s stages, as well as his detailed emphasis far beyond adolescence. 3. Behaviorism and Social Learning Behaviorism is a hugely influential perspective in psychology. In general, behaviorists scientifically study human and animal behavior and focus on what is observable and measurable. However, there are many forms and applications of behaviorism. We will discuss classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. a. Classical Conditioning You’ve most likely heard the term “classical conditioning.” However, the process by which it occurs is rather detailed. Ivan Pavlov is the researcher credited with discovering classical conditioning based on his research on dogs’ digestive systems. Since he earned a Nobel Prize for his work, the Nobel prize website has an excellent description of his work. Access this link and read in detail (Links to an external site.). Then answer the following questions, referring back to the website as needed: • How did Pavlov become interested in studying reflexes? o Answer: Pavlov, like a good scientist, was very curious and became interested when he saw that the research dogs salivated any time that they saw a researcher in a lab coat. A normal trigger for salivation would be the smell of food, but the dogs had learned to associate food with the lab coats. • What is a conditioned reflex? o Answer: A conditioned reflex, or conditioned response, is a learned response. That is, an organism becomes responsive to a stimulus that previously was neutral. For example, over time, Pavlov’s dogs became conditioned to respond to the lab coats. • How does treatment for phobias apply classical conditioning principles? o Answer: This type of conditioning to the lab coats happened accidentally, but classical conditioning can be used very intentionally to help people. Systematic desensitization operates on principles similar to classical conditioning and helps a phobic individual to, over time, associate a feared stimulus with feeling relaxed. Since relaxation and high anxiety are incompatible, the high anxiety will eventually decrease or go away entirely. b. Operant Conditioning Have you ever worked with children? If you have, perhaps you used a reward as an incentive for good behavior. If so, you relied on the principles of operant conditioning. B.F. Skinner was one of the foremost researchers on operant conditioning (he even coined the term). Watch this video interview with Skinner, taking notes on what you observe and hear. There is much in Skinner’s viewpoint that is unacceptable to many Americans today, particularly his view of free will. However, Skinner effectively showed how behavior can be shaped by the environment, namely, by reward (reinforcement) and punishment. The term “operant” refers to an organism operating on the environment. For example, when you receive something that reinforces or encourages your behavior, how then do you respond or operate? According to operant conditioning principles, a reinforcer following a behavior should make you more likely to commit that behavior again, while a punishment following a behavior should make you less likely to commit that behavior again. c. Social Learning Our final behaviorism topic is social learning. An important name in this area is Albert Bandura. He is called a social cognitive theorist/researcher because he connected behaviorism with cognition and the environment. Unlike B.F. Skinner, he accepted the importance of studying mental processes, or cognitions, even though they couldn’t be directly observed. Bandura extensively studied modeling…. and not the type that occurs down a catwalk! This type of modeling involves imitating what you see others do. Social learning emphasizes that people learn by observing others, and this learning can occur without necessarily shaping behavior through reward and punishment. We’ll later see the importance of social learning theory for explaining children’s behavior. Theoretical Perspectives in Lifespan Development II 4. Jean Piaget and Cognitive Stages of Development While the social learning theorists were a bridge between behaviorism and more cognitive models, Jean Piaget fully embraced a cognitive perspective, meaning his stages of development focus on the changes in thinking that children from infancy through adolescence experience. Trained as a biologist, Piaget thought that development happened on its own via maturation. That is, as children get older, they have increased capacity to understand the world. Read the article (and watch the included video) (Links to an external site.) on Piaget’s theory. Future modules will go into more depth on each of Piaget’s stages. For now, be sure to focus on: • what is unique about Piaget’s theory of cognitive development • basic components to the theory • Piaget’s terminology Today, brain research from the field of cognitive neuroscience corroborates this finding, showing that with increased brain development comes greater capacity for sophisticated thought. However, some of Piaget’s specific stages have come under scrutiny. We will extensively discuss Piaget’s stages throughout this course. The remaining theories deserve brief mention for their relevance in understanding different aspects of development, taken from various viewpoints. 5. Information-Processing Theory Information-processing theory is a cognitive theory that likens the human brain to a computer. For example, humans actively manipulate information. Research in this area uses computer terms to describe the processes of learning and memory. Although there is some similarity between this theory and Piaget’s, information-processing theory is not connected to any stages. Rather, this theory holds that cognitive development is continuous rather than discontinuous. 6. Ethological Theories Ethological theories are biological, focusing on animal behavior. Most famously, Konrad Lorenz and his geese illustrate the phenomenon of imprinting, which is briefly described here. Regarding human development, ethological attachment theory is important for its implications for human attachments and bonding. 7. Sociocultural Theories Lev Vygotsky is an example of a sociocultural theorist. His ideas still influence the field of education today. Vygotsky focused on how culture and knowledge is transmitted to the next generation. He carefully considered how children are influenced by the people, particularly people in authority, around them. While he de-emphasized the role that the individual plays in their own development, today his work is admired for the emphasis on what students can accomplish in conjunction with a teacher’s guidance. 8. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory focuses on an environment of development (rather than the natural environment). He originated five environmental systems that influence development. They range from the very small (your neighborhood) to the very large (the period of history in which you exist). According to Bronfenbrenner, it is extremely important to consider the contexts in which individuals exist. We will discuss some of these theories extensively throughout the course, while others only appear in this module. As you study, be sure to consider the role of each theory in explaining human development. Summarize each side of the nature/nurture controversy. Then, go through the first four theorists in this module (Freud, Erikson, Skinner, and Piaget) and consider whether each theorist leans toward the nature or the nurture side. The Nature side emphasizes biology and maturation. Essentially, one’s genetics, personality, and innate characteristics will naturally enfold and cause one to develop in a particular way. On the other extreme, the Nurture side emphasizes the role of parents, other individuals, and the context in which one lives in assessing what primarily influences development. Most modern psychologists accept both as being integral to development, although some researchers and theorists may lean toward one or the other side. Similarly, most of the theorists and researchers presented in this module would acknowledge the role of both nature and nurture. Freud, for instance, incorporated both nature and nurture perspectives in his theories of development. While his emphasis on nature is more clearly seen in his view of the development of personality (id, ego, superego—not discussed in this module), his emphasis on nurture is evident in his emphasis on early childhood experiences influencing the psychosexual stages. For example; if a young child (18mo-3yrs) is shamed by a guardian and fixates too much on anal cleanliness then the issue can cause later "anal retentive" behavior. Erikson, in his emphasis on social influences, leaned toward the nurture side. . During each of Erikson's 8 stages, an outside factor will play a role in grappling with successfully achieving the "virtue" to go onto the next stage of development. For example, in Trust v Mistrust an infant who is given reliable and predictable attention in the form of care will learn to develop the virtue of hope based solely on the caregiver's outside influence Piaget’s theory, however, swings back to the nature side. He believed cognitive evolution from infancy to adolescence is based on the development of the brain in the form of expansive thought processes as the child matures and grows. Skinner also leaned toward the nurture perspective. He believed that positive and negative reinforcement determine subsequent behavior. If a child is disciplined for an activity (playing in the mud), then that child will develop an aversion to playing in the mud due to the negativity associated with the activity The Behaviorists certainly emphasize nurture over nature. 2. Summarize each side of the continuity/discontinuity controversy. Which theorists (consider Freud, Erikson, Skinner, and Piaget) view development as being discontinuous? A continuous view of development asserts that development gradually occurs, while a discontinuous view states that development moves forward in discrete stages. Stage theorists such as Freud, Erikson, and Piaget would view development as being discontinuous (in general), while the Behaviorists are more apt to view development as being continuous. 3. Compare and contrast the following three theorists regarding their stage theories and view of human development: Freud, Piaget, Erikson. In comparison, Erikson’s stage theory encapsulate an in-depth view (infancy through late adulthood) and he incorporates social development to a greater extent than do the other theorists. Piaget on the other hand, focuses exclusively on cognitive development and primarily focuses on the mechanisms and processes by which the infant and then child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypothesis. Lastly, Freud emphasizes psychosexual development and also focuses mainly on childhood and adolescence. 4. Compose four sentences to summarize the following theories: information- processing, sociocultural, ecological. Information Processing - our brains processes thousands of information daily Sociocultural - An example of a sociocultural issue is gay right. Ecological - Ecological theory of development focuses on the environment of development, how if happens based on the context. Development is lifelong 5. Why is it important to study human development across the lifespan? It would be inaccurate to say that change, or development, only occurs in childhood. Particularly when one considers the various aspects of development (aging, growth, maturation), it is evident that development is lifelong. 6. What does it mean that development is multidirectional? Development involves both improvement and decline. Specific terms, such as growth, aging, and maturation reflect the multidirectional nature of development. 7. Why is lifespan development multidisciplinary? Is there a reason why various disciplines study lifespan development? While lifespan development is relevant to many disciplines, it is particularly important to the health professions, education, and the social sciences. For each of these professional fields, an understanding of the issues and complexities of specific age groups is key to helping people. In addition, it is important to study the whole person—for instance, health, thought processes, and emotions—since each type of development affects the other. One cannot have a good handle on how to promote healthy behaviors in a client without knowing at least a little about adaptive and maladaptive emotional states. On the other hand, without some understanding of the biological underpinnings of emotions, professionals may be misguided in the decisions they make as they attempt to help. 8. You learned how development is multidimensional. Now, try to create brief definitions of the following dimensions: biological, social, emotional, cognitive. Answer Biological dimension: physical changes going on in the body. Also, it is important to note how external influences (for instance, drugs, healthful behaviors) influence biology and vice versa. Social dimension: how does the individual change in his/her social interactions with others? Emotional dimension: how does the individual change in how she/he regulates and experiences emotion? Cognitive dimension: how does the individual change in the way he/she thinks? 9. Answer the following reflection questions. There are no wrong or right answers, but self-reflection will help you to connect with the material to enhance your learning. Which periods of development interest you the most? Why? Do you plan on working with a specific age group in the future? What would you like to learn about these specific periods? Answer The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with many involuntary reflexes and a keen sense of hearing but poor vision, is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers similarly transform their roles from those who manage feeding and sleep schedules to constantly moving guides and safety inspectors for mobile, energetic children. Brain development happens at a remarkable rate, as does physical growth and language development. Infants have their own temperaments and approaches to play. Interactions with primary caregivers (and others) undergo changes influenced by possible separation anxiety and the development of attachment styles. Social and cultural issues center around breastfeeding or formula- feeding, sleeping in cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training, and whether or not to get vaccinations. 10. Answer the following reflection questions. There are no wrong or right answers, but self-reflection will help you to connect with the material to enhance your learning. Going through all eight developmental periods, come up with two to three adjectives to describe each period. Why did you choose these descriptors? Were some periods easier to describe than others? Why, or why not? Prenatal development - labour, delivery and childbirth. This clearly captures the period between when a woman conceive and give birth to their young. Infancy and toddler - Newborn, caregiver and attachment Early Child - preschool, independence and determination to learn Middle Childhood - comparisons, brain development, social relationship Adolescence - puberty, self identity, peers , sex Early Adulthood - crimes and substance abuse ,work/career, family Middle Adulthood - aging, commitment, mid-life crisis, goals Late Adulthood - optimal aging, normal aging and impaired aging Some where a little difficult to come up with especially the late adulthood because very little development happens during this time. Module 2 Review Types of Research This module will discuss two types of beginnings: how we begin obtaining knowledge in lifespan development and the beginning of a human life. Watch the video below as you study the material in this module. 1. Longitudinal Study Design Research in lifespan development is similar to research conducted with human subjects in other fields. However, studies in human development are likely to use a longitudinal study design. This type of design involves following individuals over a long period of time with multiple assessment points. For example, children can participate in a longitudinal study in which they are asked about their social groups at age 10, 13, and 15. Think about it: What are the advantages of using a longitudinal design? What are the disadvantages? Write down or type out your answers, and then read on. A longitudinal design enables researchers to tease out whether a phenomenon is due to developmental change (the person becoming older, more mature, etc.) or something inherent in the individual. It can also explore what qualities change over time and what qualities remain stable. However, the longer the study, the more time and resources are needed. Also, it is difficult for people to commit multiple years (or decades) of their lives to a single study. 2. Cross-Sectional Study A cross-sectional study, on the other hand, compares different age groups at the same time. For instance, this study design would include three groups of children and teens who are asked about their social groups. The groups are compared to each other. Since the children are not followed over time, this design doesn’t adequately observe how the children developed---it simply examines how they are currently. Yet, this design is certainly more time- efficient than a longitudinal study, and participants may be less likely to drop out of the study. These two overall study designs can also be combined to great advantage. There are also two types of approaches that must be chosen in addition to the research methods. For example, a researcher might choose a longitudinal experimental design or a cross-sectional survey design. A. Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation is a research method that involves observing a research subject outside of a research setting and in a more natural location. For example, Jean Piaget routinely observed his children at play at home. Today, researchers may conduct naturalistic observations in school settings. B. Case Study Similarly, case studies often involve direct observation of research subjects. But, case studies also involve interviewing the participant in great detail. As such, it is a very detailed examination of an individual. C. Survey/Interview Surveys can be administered anonymously, such as via the Internet or mail, or in person. If they are administered in person, they would take place in an interview format. Surveys ask questions about attitudes, opinions, and the frequencies of certain behaviors. D. Correlational Research In correlational research, the researcher is interested in knowing how two variables, or things, relate together. For example, do the number of friendships that people have increase with age? To answer this, researchers use statistics to indicate the degree and direction of the relationship. The degree of the relation tells you how strong the correlation is, while the direction indicates whether both variables increase together (that would be a positive relationship) or whether as one variable increases, the other decreases (a negative, or inverse, relationship). An example of a negative association or relationship would be as one gets older, one throws fewer temper tantrums. E. Experiments Many fascinating results have arisen from psychological experiments. An experiment is a research design in which the researcher tightly controls the setting, as well as participants and variables in the research study. In addition, the researcher manipulates a factor that is believed to have some influence. For instance, in a treatment study, treatment would be the manipulated variable. Treatment studies typically have more than one participant group, such as a group receiving psychotherapy, a group receiving drug treatment, and a control group. The manipulation can be observed in the researcher setting up this three-group situation and then randomly assigning participants to be in one of the groups. Due to these features, it is only an experimental study that can adequately discern whether the manipulated variable caused a change. No other study design allows such an observation to be made, since random assignment to groups and manipulation of an experimental variable are typically absent from other study designs. Biological Beginnings and Prenatal Development Now we are ready to begin directly discussing human development. From this point on, we are going to explore human development from conception through death. To do so, we will first explore current technology used to view prenatal development. Next, we consider the interactive nature between biological and environmental contributions to development (nature/nurture). Thirdly, we consider the stages of prenatal development. Finally, we discuss childbirth and post-birth. A. Prenatal Diagnostic Tests Prenatal diagnostic tests allow parents and health care professionals to discern whether a baby is developing normally. These tests include ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling. 1. Ultrasound Ultrasound (sonogram) directs high frequency sound waves into the mother’s abdomen. The echo from the sound waves is then used to create an image of the developing baby. Ultrasound can show the position of the baby, gender, gestational age, and some brain defects. Noninvasive and generally viewed to be safe, a general rule is to have fewer than five ultrasounds during pregnancy (having five or more may be associated with increased risk of low birth weight). Below is a 3-D ultrasound image taken at the gestational age of 20 weeks. Read the Mayo Clinic article on ultrasound. (Links to an external site.) 2. Amniocentesis Amniocentesis involves removing a sample of amniotic fluid through a syringe. The fluid can then be tested for chromosomal and genetic abnormalities. Typically, amniocentesis is done between the 15th and 20th weeks of pregnancy. However, amniocentesis is more invasive than an ultrasound, and there is a risk of miscarriage after amniocentesis (roughly 1 in 300 women will miscarry). Read the Johns Hopkins article on amniocentesis. (Links to an external site.) 3. Chorionic Villus Sampling Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) involves inserting a tube and removing tissue from the end of one or more chorionic villi, which are hair-like projections on the membrane of the developing child. CVS is typically performed between the 10th and 12th weeks after conception and is used to detect genetic abnormalities. Due to its invasive nature, there is a higher risk of miscarriage than with amniocentesis. In addition, there is a risk of causing limb deformity in the developing baby. Read the Johns Hopkins article on CVS. (Links to an external site.) At issue regarding the prenatal diagnostic tests, then, is the balance between obtaining information—particularly in at-risk cases—and protecting the mother and child. In addition, prenatal tests may play a controversial role in abortion decisions. B. Genetic-Environment Interactions As discussed in Module 1, a summary solution to the nature/nurture controversy is that both play an integral role. However, the complex ways in which this may occur warrant further explanation. In general, there are three ways that genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) interact to influence an individual. 1. Passive Genotype-Environment Interaction First, parents can provide both the genetic predisposition as well as a nurturing context to foster certain qualities in a child. For example, a musical family provides many opportunities for musical development. This example is known as a passive genotype-environment interaction, since the child’s role is a passive one (a genotype is the genetic make-up of an individual). 2. Evocative Genotype-Environment Interaction Second, parents can provide the genetic predisposition for the child to then evoke certain reactions in others. For example, a very social child will affect others around her to behave in certain ways, which will then influence her own development. For example, this child may develop a large social group and be viewed favorably by teachers who value strong interpersonal skills. In short, our own behaviors may play a role in our development. This is known as an evocative genotype-environment interaction. 3. Active Genotype-Environment Interaction Third, parents may provide a genetic predisposition that results in the child actively seeking out environmental conditions that foster the development of certain qualities. For example, a musically gifted child may single-mindedly pursue musical outlets regardless of whether others encourage him or her to do so. This is an example of an active genotype-environment interaction. Application to your own life: Consider one quality that you have and think about how this quality developed. How might both nature and nurture have contributed to its development? Is this an example of a passive, evocative, or active genotype-environment interaction? Biological Beginnings and Prenatal Development II C. Prenatal Development We now begin going sequentially through the lifespan, starting with conception. Before we begin, take this quick quiz to see what you know about prenatal development. Match the description to the correct age. Remember, the ages refer to time after conception. Arteries and veins of heart are complete a. 7-8 weeks Can respond to sound b. 8-9 weeks Thumb sucking can be observed c. 20 weeks Breathing motions can be observed d. 22-26 weeks If born prematurely, baby can survive e. 30 weeks Answers: Arteries and veins of the heart are complete by 7 to 8 weeks. Thumb sucking can be observed by 8 to 9 weeks. A fetus can respond to sound by 20 weeks. It is possible for the baby to survive outside the womb by 22 to 26 weeks. Breathing motions can be observed by 30 weeks. Now, there are three periods of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. The germinal period takes place during the first two weeks after conception, when the zygote is created and attaches to the uterine wall. During the embryonic period (2 to 8 weeks after conception), layers of cells are formed. These layers will develop into organs and support systems for cells. For instance, the inner layer of cells develops into the respiratory and digestive systems, while the outer layer becomes the nervous system and sensory systems. Finally, the fetal period begins two months after conception and lasts approximately seven months. Major growth and development takes place during this period. 1. Trimesters Most parents are more familiar with categorizing prenatal development in terms of trimesters of pregnancy, each lasting approximately three months. Major developmental changes in each of the trimesters are listed below. First Trimester Second Trimester Third Trimester Grows up to 3 in. Grows to about 14 in. Weighs about 1 lb. Grows up to 19 in. Weighs about 1 oz. by the end by the end Average weight 6-7 lb. at 3 weeks Begins to develop spinal cord, nervous system, gastrointestinal system, heart, lungs Heart beat detectable at 8 weeks Skin is protected by vernix (milky substance) and lanugo (fine hairs) Heartbeat can be heard with stethoscope Lanugo is nearly gone Age of viability 22-26 week Can move arms, legs, fingers, toes Eyes open by 24 weeks Usually assumes upside- down position Brain is forming by 8 weeks Can suck thumb, has strong grip Can smile, frown, suck, swallow Has nails, hair, Bones in skull are soft and pliable Body fat is continually bein eyelashes, eyebrows added Can move and respond to touch by the Can roll over; mother Mother feels less movemen second month at the end can feel movement Can tell the gender around 12 weeks Can feel pain Very responsive to stimulation such as touch, sound, light 2. Teratogens Developmental milestones in this chart are guidelines describing what is most typical. However, environmental agents can interfere with natural growth and produce a birth defect. These agents are known as teratogens. Think of some examples of teratogens, and then read below. An interesting feature of teratogens is that their precise effects depend upon a number of variables, including: • The baby’s gestational age. Exposure to a particular teratogen at one point in development may not have much effect, while exposure at another point does. The general rule is that systems that are in the process of development are more susceptible at that time than other systems. For instance, susceptibility to teratogens typically begins around three weeks after conception, after which time the organs are particularly susceptible because they are being formed (this is known as organogenesis). After the organs are formed, teratogen exposure may not cause anatomical defects; although, the teratogen might then stunt growth or function. • Amount of the teratogen. More exposure might result in more damage. • Susceptibility. Qualities inherent in the mother and/or child may influence whether, or to what extent, a teratogen has an effect. These qualities may affect how substances are metabolized as well as how much of the substance is passed to the developing baby. Thus, teratogens are another good example of a genetic-environment interaction. Examples of teratogens and a sampling of possible effects are listed below. Type of Teratogen Possible Consequence Nicotine Miscarriage, preterm birth, low birth weight, learning difficultie Alcohol Fetal alcohol syndrome, cognitive and emotional problems X-rays Gene mutation, possible deformity Herpes Miscarriage, low birth weight, intellectual disability Toxoplasmosis Eye and brain damage Malnutrition Nervous system damage, respiratory illness, poor health Stress Miscarriage, prematurity, low birth weight, respiratory illness, b Advanced maternal age Chromosomal defects, miscarriage, infertility Additional problems may also occur with these teratogens, and other teratogens are also detrimental. You may want to read additional sources if you are interested in learning more. However, be cautious with Internet searches on teratogens, since many mothering sites showcase biased and unscientific information that may result in creating another teratogen for the mother: stress! You may find it interesting that agents such as malnutrition, age, and stress are considered teratogens. However, the process by which they effect development are nonetheless biological. For example, when a mother experiences severe stress during pregnancy, increased blood is sent to her brain, heart, and limbs while less is sent to her uterus and the baby. In addition, stress hormones do cross the placenta and may increase fetal heart rate and otherwise alter the baby’s functioning. You may also notice that many teratogens may affect a child’s cognitive development (memory, attention, intelligence). This is because the baby’s brain is most vulnerable after organogenesis and throughout pregnancy because it is under continual development. Although this module has primarily emphasized teratogens that affect the mother and baby, an increasing amount of evidence is showing that paternal (father’s) exposure to teratogens can also result in birth defects. These teratogens may cause abnormalities in sperm that are then introduced to the baby at conception. D. Childbirth 1. Stages of Childbirth Stage I is early labor & active labor. As the longest stage, it begins at the onset of true labor and ends when the cervix is completely dilated. Early labor typically takes 8 to 12 hours itself, while active labor often takes 3 to 5 hours. Contractions in early labor often last for about 30 to 45 seconds, with 5 to 30 minutes of rest in between. Contractions start out mild and irregular, but then progress. Sometimes a woman’s water breaks in this stage (this is an amniotic sac rupture), and sometimes it does not. During active labor, contractions last about 45 to 60 seconds with 3 to 5 minutes of rest in between. Stage II is delivery of the baby, and it begins after the cervix is dilated completely (10 cm) and ends after the baby’s delivery. This stage may last anywhere from 20 minutes to 2 hours. This is when a strong urge to push occurs, accompanied by a strong sense of pressure at the rectum. The baby’s head will eventually crown, or become visible. When this happens, it is important to let the health care provider coach how and when to push. Stage III is the delivery of the placenta (afterbirth), which typically takes 5 to 10 minutes. Contractions start up again in preparation for this. The placenta begins to separate from the uterine wall so that it can be delivered. The mother may experience shaking and shivering after the placental delivery, and this is normal. 2. Strategies of Childbirth Numerous childbirth strategies exist, and parents can choose various methods of delivery. For example, one important decision includes whether to use drugs during delivery. Three different types of drugs are typically used: analgesics, anesthesia, and oxytocics. Analgesics relieve pain and include narcotics, barbiturates, and tranquilizers. Anesthesia blocks the sensation of pain in a certain area of the body. General anesthesia may also block consciousness; although today, most normal deliveries trend away from general anesthesia and instead use epidural anesthesia, which is a regional block. Oxytocics are synthetic hormones that stimulate contractions for the purpose of inducing labor. Another important childbirth decision is whether to use prepared childbirth, also known as Lamaze (named after the founder of the childbirth strategy). Lamaze uses breathing techniques and education to help relieve pain and control fear. A final period of childbirth is the postpartum period, which is when the mother’s body heals and she emotionally adjusts to childbearing and childrearing. It is generally said to last approximately 6 weeks, which is when the body has completed biological adjustments to childbearing. Biological adjustments include involution, which is when the uterus returns to its normal size (dropping from 2 to 3 lb. post-delivery to 2 to 3 ounces). Breastfeeding actually helps contract the uterus at a faster rate. Numerous psychological adjustments also occur, such as coordinating the parents’ and baby’s schedules, readjusting social relationships, and bonding with the baby. Module Review Questions Question 1 Describe the three types of prenatal tests described in this module, including the purposes and problems associated with each. Your Answer: Ultrasound uses sound waves to detect and determine a baby's position, gender and gestational period which normally is the age of the baby. It is less invasive and less risky. Amniocentesis on the other hand is invasive and it involves removing a sample of amniotic fluid using a syringe to test for chromosomal and genetic abnormality. This procedure is more risky than ultrasound and may sometimes lead to miscarriage. It is done between the 15th to 20th week of conception Chorionic Villus sampling is normally done between 10 to 12 weeks after conception. It involves removing cells that are part of the plancenta. It is normally done through the abdomen using a syringe or through the cervix. Due to its invasive nature, the procedure have a higher risk of miscarriage than the amniocentesis. ABC Response Ultrasound directs high frequency soundwaves into the mother’s abdomen to create an image of the developing baby. Ultrasound can show the position of the baby, gender, gestational age, and some brain defects. Noninvasive and generally viewed to be safe, a general rule is to have fewer than five ultrasounds during pregnancy due to a possible risk of low birthweight. Amniocentesis involves removing a sample of amniotic fluid through a syringe. The fluid is then tested for chromosomal and genetic abnormalities. However, there is a risk of miscarriage with amniocentesis. Chorionic villus sampling involves inserting a tube and removing tissue from the end of one or more chorionic villi. CVS is used to detect genetic abnormalities, but there is a risk of miscarriage and limb deformity. Question 2 Reflect: What are your thoughts about the use of the various prenatal diagnostic tests? Your Answer: It is important to perform this procedures as it informs the parents about their new form fetus and possible complications that can be taken care of or monitored at the earliest time of pregnancy. As with all procedures, they also have associated risk especially the amniocentesis and CVS. therefore, except if necessary, it is not advice for it to be perform during pregnancy. With ultrasound, given it less invasive nature, it is necessary for the fetus to be monitored if it is developing the right way and to be able to check for any changes that may arise. This procedure is also very safe once it is performed with doctors approval. Question 3 Compare and contrast the three types of genotype-environment interactions discussed in this module. Your Answer: Passive genotype-environment interaction is when genetic plus fostering environment is providing. example, a football player providing the right atmosphere for sport for his/her kids. An Evocative genetic-environment interaction on the other hand, is when genetic predisposition plus behavior. That is, a child's behavior influencing others especially parents or guidance around him to act in a nurturing manner. from the example above, the child of the football player picks up an interest in a particular sport that will necessitate parents or people around him to start encouraging him to demonstrate or improve his/her skill An active genetic-environment interaction is when the kid with the genetic makeup start playing sport actively and utilizing the environment to foster craft. ABC Response Passive genotype-environment interaction: the child’s role is passive; the genes passed along by the parents, as well as the environmental stimulation, work together to bring out certain qualities in the child. Evocative genotype-environment interaction: genes passed along by the parents result in the child behaving in ways that evoke particular responses in others, resulting in environmental stimulation of certain qualities in the child. Active genotype-environment interaction: genes passed along by the parents result in the child actively seeking out environmental stimulation for certain qualities. Question 4 Describe precisely when the germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods occur. Your Answer: Germinal period begins two weeks after conception when the zygote is created and attached to the uterine wall. Embryonic stage begins 2 to 8 weeks after conception, layers of cells are develop which which end up becoming support systems for cell Fetal stage; Begins 2 to 7 month after conception. ABC Response The Germinal Period takes place during the first two weeks after conception. The Embryonic Period is 2-8 weeks after conception, and the Fetal Period begins two months after conception and lasts approximately seven months. Question 5 If a teratogen is introduced during the first trimester of pregnancy, what parts of the baby’s body might be harmed? Your Answer: A teratogen introduced during the first trimester can cause major organ defects such as neural tube defect, heart and spina difiba. It can also cause other complications as this is the stage where in organs are just beginning to form. ABC Response Since these are systems under major development in the first trimester, they are the most likely to be affected: spinal cord, brain, all major organs, limbs, face. Question 6 A friend of yours says that she smoked throughout pregnancy and her baby is fine. “So,” she concludes,”nicotine doesn’t harm babies.” How would you respond, based on data on teragons? Your Answer: Teratogens affect a baby development based on the following factors; susceptability, amount and orgnogenesis. Depending on when the teratogen is introduced, it could cause severe defects or sometimes less so.Probably that mum was less susceptible to nicotine so her child did not suffer the consequences of her action, but majority of mothers out there are not so lucky. Nicotine can cause some major defect such as miscarriage, preterm birth or low birth weight and learning disorder. Therefore, it is not adviced to smoke while pregnant to avoid complications. ABC Response You can begin by expressing your happiness that her baby is fine, as well as your wishes that he/she remains fine! However, you can add that she is fortunate that the way her body (and her baby’s body) processed the nicotine did not result in some of the potential, immediate consequences of nicotine use during pregnancy (miscarriage, preterm birth, low birth weight). You might want to let her know that others smoking during pregnancy might not be so fortunate. It may not be the best to say this, but it will be interesting to see whether her child truly suffers no ill effect from the nicotine use, since smoking during pregnancy is potentially linked to ADHD and learning disabilities in children. Question 7 What are the three stages of childbirth? Your Answer: They are; 1. Early labor & Active Labor i) Early labor and active labor - Early labor typically takes 8 to 12 hours itself, Active labor often takes 3 to 5 hours ii) Contractions in early labor often last for about 30 to 45 seconds iii) During active labor, contractions last about 45 to 60 seconds with 3 to 5 minutes of rest in between 2) Delivery of the baby - It begins after the cervix is dilated completely (10 cm) and ends after the baby’s delivery - This stage may last anywhere from 20 minutes to 2 hours - The baby’s head will eventually crown, or become visible. When this happens, it is important to let the health care provider coach how and when to push 3) Delivery of the placenta - (afterbirth) - It typically takes 5 to 10 minutes - Contractions start up again in preparation for this. The placenta begins to separate from the uterine wall so that it can be delivered - Mother experiences shaking and shivering. Stage 1: Dilation and Effacement of Cervix. Stage 2: Delivery of the Baby. Stage 3: Delivery of Placenta. You will also want to know specific details of each stage. Question 8 What major adjustments take place during the postpartum period? Your Answer: One major adjustment that occurs during this period is called involution. It is the period when the mother’s uterus shrinks back to its normal size (2 lbs). Obviously, it involves other psychological adjustment which includes adjusting mother and child schedule, outside social relationship and bonding with ones child. ABC Response Biological adjustments include involution, not to mention sleep adjustments to combat fatigue as well as overall healing. Numerous psychological adjustments also occur, such as coordinating the parents’ and baby’s schedules, readjusting social relationships, and bonding with the baby. Compare and contrast longitudinal and cross-sectional studies. Your Answer: longitudinal studies follow the same set of people over time whereas a cross sectional studies interviews a fresh set of people each time they are carried out A longitudinal design enables researchers to observe change over time as well as which qualities in an individual remain stable, while a cross-sectional design does not address either of these very well. However, it is generally more difficult to conduct longitudinal researcher due to the extensive time required. A cross-sectional study simply investigates a cross-section of a population at once. Both study approaches, however, can be used to answer questions about certain aspects of lifespan development. For the five research methods discussed in this module (naturalistic observation through experiments), write out the following: 1) What are the advantages of choosing this research design? 2) What are the disadvantages? 3) Summarize the main reason why the study design might be chosen. You will not find the precise answers to this question in the module, so you will be required to think critically about each research design and come up with a well-reasoned answer. Your Answer: 1. Naturalistic observation looks at its subject in their natural setting without interfering with the daily routine when carrying the observation. The observer does not influence the result because most times the people being observed are not aware of what is going on. The advantage of this type of research normally is that it targets the behaviors of the subject. 2. The disadvantage on the other hand is the research only focuses on the behavior/s of the subject 3. The main reason why this type of research is normally chosen is that it gives an idea of what/ how the subject interact in their natural environment. An example is observing student choice of food in a cafeteria setting, whether they tend to consume a healthy meal or an unhealthy meal pattern. Research Design Advantage Disadvantage Summary Naturalistic Observation Can observe how people act naturally. Researchers can only access the information that they directly observe. The child may act differently in other settings or at other times. A good design for obtaining detailed information on a person’s behaviors. Case Study Provides rich and detailed information on one individual. May not be applicable to other cases. Particularly helpful for showcasing an unusual case to spur additional discussion. Survey Can obtain a large amount of information with a large sample. People may not accurately report on their own thoughts and behaviors! The most straightforward way to know what someone thinks is to simply ask them, as in a survey or interview. Correlational study Gives concise summary on how two variables relate to one another. Correlation does not equal causation; a correlational study doesn’t tell what actually caused any change. Popular study design, shows how different aspects of human nature relate to other aspects. Experiment Researchers can directly observe a manipulated variable effecting change. People may act unnaturally in experimental settings. A researcher seeking to know what causes something else should choose this design. Module 3 Review The Newborn The smell of a newborn infant. The feel of holding a baby in your arms. Kissing tiny fingers and toes. These are sensations that parents relish their entire lives. Many developmental experts note that babies seem to evoke very nurturing responses in most healthy adults, due to their appearance and dependency. A. Infant Reflexes Despite being entirely dependent on caregivers, infants come equipped with reflexes that either protect them or enable them to get an early start on motor skills. Each of these reflexes eventually go away when no longer needed. A lingering reflex may indicate brain damage. A list of key infant reflexes is below. See if you know or can guess what the function of each is: • rooting • moro reflex • grasping reflex (also known as Palmer grasp) • stepping reflex