1.1 INTRODUCTION ○ Inquiry ~ Process whereby we gain knowledge by observing how things are and thinking logically about what we observed. ○ Social World ~ The part of our existence dealing with how people interact ○ Science = A process of inquiry using logic, observation & theory Logical...
1. STRATEGIES OF DISCOVERY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
○ Inquiry ~ Process whereby we gain knowledge
by observing how things are and thinking logically about what we observed.
○ Social World ~ The part of our existence dealing with how people interact
○ Science = A process of inquiry using logic, observation & theory
Logical (makes sense)
Has a reference ( observed evidence)
Gives a theory (explanation for what was observed)
○ Scientific research = Systematically examine & think about a question.
1.2 SOURCES OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
1.2.1 Tradition
○ We inherit a culture containing generally accepted knowledge
~ Knowledge is cumulative & we can learn from previous generations
BUT Can be led into falsehood:
○ Thinking traditionally → don‟t find out how the knowledge was obtained in the first place
→ Source of knowledge is not questioned
○ Every scientific discipline is based on a tradition of thought
1.2.2 Authority
○ Accepting something as true because of the status of the person who discovered the truth.
○ Can help ~ The expert probably has experience & knows what he is talking about
Can hinder ~ Can overestimate the person‟s expertise
Experts can be wrong.
1.2.3 Mysticism and religion
○ Religious knowledge is based on the authority of sacred texts
○ Religion can offer meaning, but is not a reliable guide to the literal state of the world
1.2.4 Common sense
○ Ordinary reasoning
○ Relates to what people know intuitively/instinctively
○ Helpful → In everyday life, making decisions & solving problems.
→ Covers topics everyone knows about & so helps communication
,BUT
~contains illogical reasoning
~ Doesn‟t - systematically consider how ideas are related to each other
- collect information systematically
~ Common sense often originates in tradition
1.2.5 Media myths
○ Mass media ~ Powerful influence on knowledge
~ Most people develop their knowledge from what they see, hear & read in the media
~ BUT its chief purpose is entertainment, not to accurately present reality
○ This leads to distorted information & errors
1.3 Errors in human inquiry and how scientists try to avoid them
1.3.1 Inaccurate observation
○ We need to know “what” before we can explain “why”
○ People tend to carelessness when observing everyday events
○ Scientific Observation ~ Contrasts with this in that it is a conscious activity
~ Deliberate
~ Both simple & complex measurement devices help prevent us from making
inaccurate observations.
1.3.2 Over-generalization
○ Arriving at a general conclusion about a thing when we have only observed a few cases of that thing.
○ Using a few events to arrive at a conclusion → means we ignore the possibility that observing more cases
may disprove our conclusion
○ Esp tempting when there is pressure to reach a conclusion
○ Halo-effect = Over-generalizing from one very good aspect of a thing
○ Scientific safeguards against overgeneralization ~ Sufficiently large samples of observations
~ Replication of inquiry
1.3.3 Selective observation
○ Tends to follow from over-generalization
○ Once you believe events follow a particular pattern, and you think you know why:
you tend to pay attention to situations that correspond to that pattern
& ignore/overlook situations that conflict with it.
p9
,○ Scientific safeguards against Selective Observation
~Using a research design that specifies the number & kind of observations needed
~ Conclusions are based on analysis of all the observations specified in the research design.
1.3.4 Ego involvement in understanding
○ We are personally involved in our research, & understanding has psychological significance.
○ Disproof of our understandings make us feel foolish.
○ This creates a barrier to objective further enquiry.
○ Scientific Safeguard against ego involvement ~ Testing of hypotheses in a systematic manner.
~ Making the research public enables evaluation by other scientists
1.3.5 The premature closure of inquiry
○ Tends to follow from the other errors
○ We stop inquiring before the evidence for sound conclusions is adequate.
(Before our understanding is complete)
○ Scientific Safeguards ~ Doing a thorough literature review:
- this reveals the scope & complexity of the topic.
However: Science is an open-ended enterprise, and conclusions are constantly modified.
1.4 Norms of the scientific community
○ Norms = Rules of conduct in particular situations, that are enforced by positive & negative sanctions
○ Norms in the scientific community:
1. Universalism → Research is to be judged purely on the basis of its scientific merit
(regardless of who conducted it or where it was done)
2. Organised Scepticism → All evidence should be challenged & questioned.
→ This ensures that research can stand up to examination.
3. Disinterestedness → Scientists must be neutral, impartial & open to unexpected observations/new ideas.
→ Should not be rigidly weeded to an idea or pov
→ Should accept, & look for, evidence that runs contrary to their views.
4. Communalism → Knowledge belongs to everyone & should be shared.
→ Creating scientific knowledge is a public act & the findings are public property
→ The way in which research was conducted must be described in detail
→ New knowledge is only formally accepted once it has been reviewed by other
researchers & it has been made publically available in a special form & style.
5. Honesty → Scientific honesty in all research is essential.
p12
, ○ These norms can be in conflict, in which case precedence must be given to one over another.
○ Norms are ideals of professional conduct → but researchers are influenced by various personal factors
○ Norms of science are sometimes violated → Esp if scientists become too closely involved in agendas
that go beyond the scientific field (financial/political interests)
(see p14 for discussion)
○ Scientists check on each other by:
- subjecting research reports to scrutiny by publishing them in academic books/journals
- Scientific community criticizes these reports, regardless of the status of the author
- admitting all knowledge is tentative, to be accepted only until disproved.
- condemning dishonesty in research.
○ For this to work it is necessary that:
- Scientists work in an environment where they have autonomy from outside control.
- All research results must see the light of day (this one is problematic)
- Scientists must be reflexive: Be aware of own assumptions
investigate own possible prejudices.
1.5 Stages in research
1.5.1 Stage 1: defining the problem
• research design or plan
• research problem
• literature review
• theory
• assumptions
• hypothesis
• research questions
1.5.2 Stage 2: obtaining the information
• sampling
• data collection
1.5.3 Stage 3: analyzing and interpreting information
• describing and interpreting quantitative data
• describing and interpreting qualitative data
1.5.4 Stage 4: communicating results
This involves writing the research report.
p16
The benefits of buying summaries with Stuvia:
Guaranteed quality through customer reviews
Stuvia customers have reviewed more than 700,000 summaries. This how you know that you are buying the best documents.
Quick and easy check-out
You can quickly pay through credit card or Stuvia-credit for the summaries. There is no membership needed.
Focus on what matters
Your fellow students write the study notes themselves, which is why the documents are always reliable and up-to-date. This ensures you quickly get to the core!
Frequently asked questions
What do I get when I buy this document?
You get a PDF, available immediately after your purchase. The purchased document is accessible anytime, anywhere and indefinitely through your profile.
Satisfaction guarantee: how does it work?
Our satisfaction guarantee ensures that you always find a study document that suits you well. You fill out a form, and our customer service team takes care of the rest.
Who am I buying these notes from?
Stuvia is a marketplace, so you are not buying this document from us, but from seller DrPhilip. Stuvia facilitates payment to the seller.
Will I be stuck with a subscription?
No, you only buy these notes for $4.00. You're not tied to anything after your purchase.
