PSY 550 Midterm Exam Latest-GCU

For each of the research topics listed below, indicate the type of nonexperimental approach that would be most useful and explain why. 1. Pushing ahead in line 2. Daydreaming 3. Locating the most popular painting in an art gallery 4. Studiousness in college students 5. Determining whether a particular patient has improved with psychotherapy. Answer: 1. Naturalistic observation. The observation is taken place in an unmanipulated setting. People who are being observed does not know they are being observed hence the behaviours of pushing ahead in line and reactions to the pushing behaviours would be more accurate. 2. Qualitative design (phenomenology). This type of design collects participant’s perceptions and experiences. The data would be the words described by the participants. Phenomenology is used to describe first-person accounts of conscious experiences. 3. Naturalistic observation. The researcher could examine people’s reactions and behaviours in a natural and unmanipulated setting to a particular painting. For example, gathering around a picture, taking photos, gathering around a picture that already has a crowd in front of it, etc. 4. Existing data designs. Existing data designs are used to analyze data that already exist. Exam grades or GPA can be analyzed to determine the studiousness in college students. Naturalistic observations followed by existing data designs could also occur as the researcher could first use the duration method to see how long each student spend time studying in the library. Then, he could use existing data designs to analyze the scores of these students to determine the studiousness. 5. Case study. A case study is the qualitative analysis of an individual, a group, an organization, or an event used to illustrate a phenomenon, explore new hypotheses, or compare the observations of many cases. Comparing the mental conditions of a patient before and after treatments helps in determining if he has improved with psychotherapy. Question 2 List the main sections (and subsections) of a research report. Answer: • Title • Abstract • Introduction—includes a literature review and identification of research hypotheses • Method—describes the participants, surveys and materials, procedures and analyses • Result—discloses the data measured and statistical outcomes observed • Discussion—provides an evaluation of the design, data, and hypotheses. • References • Footnotes (if any) • Tables (if any) • Figures (if any) • Appendices (if any) Question 3 Compare and contrast the following terms: (a) test-retest reliability with inter-rater reliability, (b) content validity with both predictive validity and construct validity, and (c) internal validity with external validity. • Answer: a) Test-retest reliability is the extent to which measurements or observations are consistent across time. Therefore, if the stability of a measurements over time increases, the more reliable these measurements are. Interrater reliability is to compare the consistency of ratings or judgments of a behaviour or event. The test-retest reliability is about the stability of the test/method while interrater reliability is about the observer/rater. They are both assessing the reliability of a measurement. b) Content validity is the extent to which the items or contents of a measure adequately represent all of the features of the construct being measured. Construct validity is the extent to which an operational definition for a variable or construct is actually measuring that variable or construct, meaning that whatever we are measuring is and means what we are measuring. Criterion-related (Predictive) validity is the extent to which scores obtained on some measure can be used to infer or predict a criterion or expected outcome, meaning that the variable can explain or predict the outcome. All three are describing the validity of the measurement, but in different aspects. c) Internal validity is the extent to which a research design includes enough control of the conditions and experiences of participants that it can demonstrate a single unambiguous explanation for a manipulation— that is, cause and effect. Experimental research designs have the greatest control, and therefore the highest internal validity; nonexperimental research designs have the least control, and therefore the lowest internal validity. External validity is the extent to which observations made in a study generalize beyond the specific manipulations or constraints in the study. The higher constraints, the lower external validity. The lower constraints (observations in a natural setting), the higher external validity. Question 4 Define and describe the six steps of the scientific method. Give an example of each step. Answer: Identify a problem—determine an area of interest, review the literature, identify new ideas in your area of interest, and develop a research hypothesis. Ex. I want to know if a bean sprout grows sweeter beans under physical pressure or not. Develop a research plan—define the variables being tested, identify participants or subjects and determine how to sample them, select a research strategy and design, evaluate ethics and obtain institutional approval to conduct research.