Developmental Psychology: Challenges in Education and Development (FSWP2070A)
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Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam (EUR)
This document summarises all literature needed in block 2.7C Challenges in Education and Development (FSWP2-070-A). I am an Honour student who likes to create helpful visuals, overviews, and diagrams accompanied by explanations. I hope you'll enjoy them, and good luck with your exam!
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Developmental Psychology: Challenges in Education and Development (FSWP2070A)
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2.7 Challenges in Education Summary
Table of Contents
P1 – The burden of being bullied ........................................................................................................ 2
P2 – Young and digital ...................................................................................................................... 18
P3 – Welcome in the classroom ........................................................................................................ 35
P4 – Special treatment for genius ..................................................................................................... 48
P5 – Under pressure ......................................................................................................................... 58
P6 - Twentysomething...................................................................................................................... 73
P7 – Life turned upside down ........................................................................................................... 83
, 2
Problem 1 – Bullying
Bullying in Schools: The Power of Bullies and the Plight of Victims
Jaana Juvonen and Sandra Graham 2013
Type of study: Monograph / General review → everything we know about the topic
Definition and Prevalence of bullying
Bullying involves targeted intimidation or humiliation
• A physically stronger or socially more prominent person (ab)uses her/his power to threaten,
demean, or belittle another
• To make the target or victim feel powerless, the bully can resort to a number of aggressive
behaviors
• The power imbalance btw bully and victim distinguishes it from conflict
• It is not clear that repetition is a required component → single traumatic incident can raise
expectations of continued abuse
• Approximately 20–25% of youths are directly involved in bullying as perpetrators, victims, or
both
Stability of Bullying and Victimization
• More is known about perpetration of bullying than about victimization
• Longitudinal data suggests
o 5-10% of the samples are chronically aggressive youths
o Instability of aggression over time → changing factors, such as school transitions,
probably contribute to the flux
o Concluded that only less than 10% are likely to be chronic bullies
o Many childhood bullies age-out → however we don’t know whether physical aggression
isn’t replaced by other forms
o Stability coefficients are stronger when there is a shorter time interval between
assessments → within one year the stability coefficient is between 0.3-0.5
• Single studies
o Middle school → students evenly distributed btw “frequently victimized class”, a
“sometimes victimized class”, and a “non-victimized class”
o By spring of 8th grade → 5% in “victimized class”, 70% in “non-victimized class”
o Decline in victimization with age
Forms and Functions of Bullying Behavior
Forms:
• Direct: physical aggression, threats, name-calling
o involve intimidating, humiliating, or belittling someone in front of an audience
• Indirect: spreading of rumors, backstabbing, and exclusion from the group
, 3
o designed to damage the targets’ social reputation or deflate their social status while
concealing the identity of the perpetrator
Meta-analysis of more than 100 studies:
• No reliable age differences in the use of direct versus indirect tactics
o Can be due to some forms of bullying not being studies among young children
o Or heterogeneity of the types of behaviors that are grouped together → although both
name-calling and physical aggression are considered direct forms of aggression, only
physical bullying is known to decreases with age
Gender differences
• Boys are more physically aggressive than girls → across age groups, races/ethnicities, social
classes, cultures, and national boundaries
• Girls are more relationally aggressive → girls were thought to value relationships more than
boys which makes it an effective form of aggression for them
o However, 2 meta-analysis suggest that there is not a strong difference between the
genders in relational aggression
o By middle adolescence, relational aggression probably becomes the norm for both
genders as it becomes less socially acceptable for individuals to physically aggress
against their peers
• Average correlation between direct and indirect forms =.76 → approximately half of the
variance in these two forms of aggression is shared.
Bullying and Social Dominance
• Early studies suggested bullying stems from lack of social skills or that aggressive behaviors
reflect a budding antisocial personality
• However, evidence shows, bullying requires sophisticated social skills and most bullies do not
turn into violent adults because bullying behaviors are often short-lived
• Evidence suggests that bullies are cold and calculating, often lacking empathy and resort to
coercive strategies to dominate and control the behavior of peers
• Bullies score high when asked how important it is to be visible, influential, and admired
• Bullies strive to
o Dominate
o Frequently have high social status
o Are popular
• Bullying and aggression is a way to establish a dominant position within a group
• Bullying peaks at adolescence because that’s the time of social reorganization and uncertainty,
mainly when transitioning from elementary school to middle school
Inflated Self-Views and Social-Cognitive Biases of Bullies
• Inflated perceptions of themselves
• Overestimate their competence not only in peer status but also academic and athletic domains
• Peer-identified bullies rate themselves lower on depression, social anxiety, and loneliness than
do youths who are socially adjusted
, 4
• May be explained by information-processing biases
o Attributional bias to perceive ambiguous situations as reflecting hostile peer intent →
may account for bullies’ lack of emotional distress
o Maintain their positive self-views by blaming and aggressing against others instead of
accepting personal responsibility for negative events
• Social feedback bullies get is more positive than negative
o Youths rarely challenge bullies by intervening when witnessing bullying incidents
o Some bystanders reinforce the bullies by smiling and laughing
o This occurs even though most condemn bullying behavior
o But are more likely to side with the bully to protect themselves (socially and physically)
VICTIMS
• Have adjustment problems
• Depressed mood and anxiety
• Psychosomatic problems
• Due to correlational nature of the research, the directionality is not clear → whether bullying
experiences cause these adjustment problems or whether signs of maladjustment make victims
easy targets
Victim Subtypes
• Submissive victims: anxious, insecure, and sensitive (e.g. cry in response of bullying)
o Lack of confidence in social interactions increases the risk of being bullied
o Bing bullied → becoming more withdrawn → risk factor for being bullied → a cycle
• Provocative victims: resort to aggression, much like bullies → failed attempts to strike back →
rewarding for bullies
o Bully-victims or aggressive victims in subsequent studies, appear to have emotion
regulation and attention problems akin to attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders
Individual and Social Risk Factors
Nonbehavioral
• Obesity
• Off-time pubertal maturation
• Disabilities
• LGBTQ
• …any condition or characteristic that makes youths stand out from their peers increases the
likelihood of them being bullied
Behavioral
• Any social misfit - social behavior deviates from group norms
• aggressive boys were rejected in cabins where verbal threats and hitting were low-frequency
behaviors
• withdrawn boys were rejected in cabins where aggression was normative
• Marginal social status
, 5
Buffer
• bullied youths are more likely to have internalizing problems over time, those victims who
report receiving emotional support from a friend are protected
• One friend is enough
Cyclical Processes and Consequences of Peer Victimization
• Relationships between peer victimization and internalizing problems are reciprocal, probably
reflecting cyclical processes over time
• Victims higher risk of adult depression, specific phobias and panic disorders & highest risk of
suicide-related behaviors
Mediating Mechanisms Underlying Psychosocial Problems
• Victims of bullying by their peers were more likely to endorse attributions for bullying that were
internal and uncontrollable by them
o “I would not be picked on if I were a cooler kid,”
o “Kids do this to me because they know I won’t get them into trouble”
• Self-blame intensified the effects of victimization on internalizing problems
School Difficulties and Health Problems
• Victims do not do well in school
• More absent
• Receive lower grades
• Not only may victimized youths feel anxious, but they may also suffer from headaches and other
physical ailments that prevent them from coming to school
• Victims suffer more health problems → potentially related to HPA axis
o During a stress test, victims had altered cortisol levels compared with their non-
victimized peers
o Higher cortisol immediately after the stressor
o Lower cortisol 30 min after the stressor
o Associated with health problems
• Neural mechanisms
o When participants were led to believe they were excluded form the game by peers
▪ increased activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)
▪ increased dACC activity was associated with more self-reported feelings of
stress following the game
o dACC is the same region that is activated when individuals experience physical pain
o Increased subACC activity following social exclusion in the study on adolescents was also
associated with increases in depression 1 year later
BULLYING IN CONTEXT: CYBERSPACE AND SCHOOLS
Cyberbullying
• Can be both
o Direct: threats or nasty messages are sent to the target
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