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Summary A level AQA Psychology Issues and Debates notes
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includes all definitions you need to know for Issues and Debates, including the strengths and weaknesses of each issue.
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Issues and Debates Notes:Issue – a source of conflict that if ignored could undermine the value of theories and research.
Debate – an academic argument that enables us to gain a better understanding of any other
potential factors involved.
Gender and culture in psychology – universality and bias. Gender bias including androcentrism and
alpha beta bias; cultural bias, includes ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
Universality – shared by all people in the world or a particular group e.g. smiling
Bias – a tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others
Cultural Bias – the tendency to perceive the world from your own cultural group
Ethnocentrism – judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture. In its
extreme form, it is the belief in the superiority of one’s own culture which may lead to prejudice and
discrimination toward other cultures.
We have to consider the importance of the behaviour of our own culture and the impact it could
have on our knowledge. Explanations may only work for certain cultural groups. Therefore, we have
to question the findings of studies which attempt to generalise their findings to the population as a
whole.
Cultural relativism – is the idea that norms and values as well as ethics and moral standards can be
understood and meaningful within specific cultural contexts.
Imposed etic – when a theory or methodology is developed in one culture and then used to study
the behaviour of people in a different culture with different norms, values and experiences.
Gender bias including androcentrism and alpha and beta bias.
When a piece of research or theory is based only on one gender.
Androcentrism – if a theory is largely focused on explaining male behaviour.
Gynocentrism – when a theory is focused on female behaviour
Alpha Bias – assuming there is a large difference between males and females – one gender is
undervalued.
Beta Bias – when a theory minimises differences between genders
Example of alpha bias – Due to Freud’s upbringing, he believed men were more powerful and
typically more educated. So, his Psychodynamic theory led to femininity being viewed as a form of
failed masculinity and therefore exaggerated differences.
Example of beta bias – Kohlberg stated that his theory of moral development was universal although
research was only conducted on men.
Impacts of gender bias:
, Sets up stereotypes
Justifies discrimination
Leads to misleading assumptions about female behaviour as most studies are done by men
Free will and determinism: hard determinism and soft determinism; biological, environmental and
psych determinism. The Scientific emphasis on causal explanations.
Free will suggests that human beings are essentially self-determining, free to choose our thoughts
and actions.
A belief in free will does not deny that biological and environmental influences exist, but our choices
can defy these forces. Humanism supports the notion of free will.
Determinism has the view that free will has no place in explaining behaviour.
Hard determinism – free will is not possible, our behaviour is always caused by internal or external
events beyond our control. eg the biological approach
Soft determinism – all events have causes, but behaviour can also be determined by our conscious
choices. eg cognitive approach or social learning theory
Biological determinism:
o The idea that behaviour is caused by biology, genes hormones, neurotransmitters and
evolution and these influences are beyond our control.
Environmental determinism:
o Skinner believes that free will is an illusion and that all behaviour is a result of conditioning.
o All choices are a result of reinforcement.
Psychic determinism:
o Freud says that free will is an illusion but puts an emphasis on biological drives and instincts.
o Behaviour is determined and directed by the unconscious mind
Evaluation
For determinism Against determinism
- Fits with science, human beings are - Unfalsifiable – potential to prove wrong
predictable does not exist.
- Leads to developments of treatments - Cannot disprove that upbringing of
and therapies someone has an affect or not
For free will Against Free Will
- Locus of control - Brains activity shows that brains
- Internal – you chose what happens and decided up to 10 seconds before being
can take control of your actions made aware of the decision.
Interactionist View –
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