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MORAL PHILOSOPHYExplain Aristotle’s’ doctrine of the mean and how it applies to a particular virtue (12)
The doctrine of the mean asserts that an individual having a virtue comes with the condition
that they are able to use reason to keep from displaying ‘too much’ or ‘too little’ of it, for
example, too little courage or too much fear is cowardice. However, the mean virtue is
relative to the individual in question and the right amount for one differs from the right
amount for another.
In application to courage, the individual should be able to differentiate the scale of their
courageous response based on the situation – they must know when to be brave, when to
be bold and when to run away. In this sense, the mean at its core is about doing the right
thing, at the right time, to the right people in the right way and individuals with many virtues
and no vices have what is dubbed by Aristotle as ‘ethica arete’ or having excellence of
character. But it must also be considered that Aristotle classifies certain acts to have no
mean, such as murder.
Explain how Aristotelian ethics might be applied to the issues of simulated killing (12)
Simulated killing is an imitation of killing and may be something an individual watches as part
of an audience or takes part in as a player. In his Poetics, Aristotle wrote about how
watching a tragedy was cathartic for the audience whereby pent-up emotions from previous
scenes release in a climax and are then gone. Aristotle would see this as a safe ‘cleansing’
of negative emotions, and that it is a part of the education of our character. By watching
simulated kills in plays or films, or even playing them in video games allows us to experience
the right emotions at the right time within the right amount therefore we can grasp a clearer
distinction of when they are appropriate, whilst learning to control them as well.
However, McCormick believes that if Aristotelian ethics were applied to simulated killing,
Aristotle's viewpoint would ‘erode one’s character, and make it more difficult for one to live a
fulfilled eudaimonic life.’ This is because developing an ‘excellence of character’ (as Aristotle
preaches to be the prime) requires careful cultivation and witnessing or taking part habitually
in simulated killing would move individuals away from being virtuous.
Explain what Aristotle means by ‘eudaimonia’. (5)
Eudaimonia, or ‘flourishing’ is a state of living Aristotle sees as the final end, for the sake of
which everything else is done. It is not a life of pleasure-based happiness or wealth and isn’t
a means to an end but a supreme good that continues throughout our life. Aristotle took a
teleological approach to viewing the world, meaning everything in the universe is directed
towards a final goal, including humans. This final goal for humans in his opinion is attaining
eudaimonia.
Outline Aristotle’s’ function argument (5)
The function argument used by Aristotle explains that eudaimonia or the ‘good life’ is only
achieved through exercising our reason, aims to show that humans have a particular
function and the first part is as follows:
P1 Every type of person has a distinctive role/function in society; every part of the human
body has a distinctive function
P2 Therefore human beings must also have a distinctive function.
P3 Our function cannot be growth/nutrition (shared with plants) or sentience (shared with
animals) because these are not distinctive to humans but being guided by reason is
distinctive to humans.
C1 Therefore our function is to be guided by reason.
(This is guilty of the fallacy of composition: just because every part of a human has a
function does not necessarily equal to every human having function)
The second section shows that in order to function well and attain eudaimonia, we need to
,develop the right virtues or qualities:
P4 X is good if it fulfils its function well
P5 X fulfils its function well if it has the right virtues/qualities
P6 Therefore a good human is someone with the right virtues which enable them to live
guided well by reason.
P7 the good life of a human = the life of a good human
C2 Therefore eudaimonia is reached by someone with the right virtues which allow them to
live guided well by reason.
Explain Aristotle’s’ account for the role of education/ habituation in the development
of moral character (5)
Aristotle believes that humans have the potential to develop virtues if they practise them
repeatedly over time: learning them as children and choosing to follow through with them as
adults through commitment. This habituation leads to virtue, however, it must be said that a
virtue is not a habit because habits can occur absent-mindedly, whereas developing a virtue
is an informed, conscious choice by the individual as it requires reasoning for actions.
Aristotle compares it to developing a skill, which requires the same process because we are
not born with a skill but can only learn it through practice e.g. learning to paint by painting,
and in the same way, learning to be charitable by being charitable.
Outline whether VE is about the individual or moral good (12)
Moral philosophy draws a distinction between actions that are self-interested/individually
good and actions that benefit others/morally good.
1. VE is about the individual good:
- The Ethics is an account of how we can each flourish and attain eudaimonia
- Some virtues benefit the individual possessing them e.g ambitious, proud, aristocratic
- Intellectual virtues like practical wisdom are self-interested as they help us reach
eudaimonia for ourselves.
2. VE is about the moral good:
- Aristotle believes he has shown that what is truly good for the individual is to strive for a life
of virtue.
- Many virtues we recognise as 'moral' e.g justice, generosity, truthfulness, courage)
- Aristotle is clear that some immoral behaviours such as murder, theft etc. are never
appropriate.
3. The individual good = the moral good:
- In Aristotle/Plato/Socrates' Ancient Greek tradition, moral behaviour does not conflict with
self-interested behaviour.
- We must be careful to follow 'true' self-interest, not 'apparent' self-interest. Aristotle thinks
we are wrong if we seek pleasure, wealth or honour as this doesn't lead to eudaimonia.
- Eudaimonia is a thoughtful, considered, active life in which we develop virtues which
benefit both ourselves and others, so as each flourish we all flourish.
- Individual pursuit of self-interest for eudaimonia results in modern 'moral good'.
Outline the distinction between cognitivism and non-cognitivism about
ethical/religious language. (5)
Cognitivism asserts that ethical/religious language, used in sentences such as 'killing is
wrong' (or 'God exists'), is merely an expression of belief from someone's cognitive state,
that aims to describe how the world is, thus making it a truth-apt proposition (meaning that it
can either be true of false). Non-cognitivism, on the other hand, asserts that ethical language
only acts as a prescriptive command for people, reflects people's moral/religious attitudes to
the world, and so can not be a truth-apt proposition.
Outline the distinction between moral realism and moral anti-realism. (5)
, Moral realism: There are mind-independent, external moral properties and facts – e.g.
“murder is wrong” is a moral fact because the act of murder has the moral property of
wrongness. Realist metaethical theories argue that mind-independent moral properties –
such as ‘right’, ‘wrong’, ‘good’, and ‘bad’ – exist.
Moral anti-realism: Mind-independent moral properties and facts do not exist.
Outline Naturalism/Explain why utilitarianism OR VE is a naturalist meta ethical
position. (5)
Naturalism, a form of meta-ethical moral realism, asserts that moral judgements are beliefs
that are intended to be true or false, hence cognitivist, and that moral properties are natural
properties of the world, not supernatural nor divine. Utilitarianism is an example of a
naturalist ethical theory, as it reduces 'good' to the feeling of pleasure, and 'bad' to the
feeling of pain, both feelings of which are natural properties of the brain, thus making them
naturalist.
Mill begins his proof by stating that 'happiness' is what each person desires, concluding that
happiness is 'the good'; this is naturalist because it again reduces the concept of good to the
feeling of happiness, a natural property in the brain, which is natural to the world.
Aristotle’s discussion of ergon/function can be interpreted as a discussion of natural facts
about human beings. We might argue that it is a natural fact that the function of human
beings is to use reason. So, on this reading, ‘good’ reduces to a set of natural facts about
function and performing that function well. For example, being courageous is good because
being courageous helps humans act correctly according to reason. This makes Aristotle's
virtue ethics naturalist.
Outline Non-Naturalism. (5)
Ethical non-naturalism, a form of moral realism, says that moral judgements are beliefs that
are intended to be true or false, hence cognitivist, but are special, non-natural properties of
the world.
The naturalistic fallacy identified by G.E Moore proposed that there is bad reasoning, or a
fallacy, of equating goodness with some natural property such as pleasure or pain seen in
Utilitarianism. Moore would say it is a fallacy to conclude that something is good from the
fact that it is pleasurable because they are two completely different kinds of properties – one
moral, one natural. Even if pleasure and goodness are closely correlated, it doesn’t and
could not follow that they are the same thing. So, Moore would argue that Mill’s proof of
utilitarianism is invalid: To conclude that happiness (a natural property) is good (a moral
property) commits the naturalistic fallacy.
What does Aristotle mean by ergon and arete? (3/5)
While fleshing out this concept of eudaimonia, Aristotle uses the words arête and ergon.
These roughly translate as:
● Ergon: function/characteristic activity of a thing
● Arête: property/virtue that enables a thing to achieve its ergon
For example, a knife’s ergon is to cut things. And a good knife has the arête of sharpness
because this enables it to cut things well.
Examine Mill’s higher and lower pleasures (5)
Mill developed Bentham’s original concept of utilitarianism into qualitative hedonistic
utilitarianism by introducing a new distinction between ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ pleasures. Mill
thought that pleasures of the mind were superior to lower physical pleasures of the body as
the former had more longevity even if the latter felt more intense. Mill then claimed that
humans would prefer higher pleasures (such as reading, understanding concepts) and would
thus value them more. This distinction overcomes any issues that general utilitarianism may
face, such as the notion that purely seeking overall pleasure could lead to things like
mindless drinking, but when applied to Mill’s distinction, we can know that mindless drinking
is a lower pleasure because it only temporarily satisfies an individual and causes their
bodies to function in a drunken manner, and so it is not the type of higher pleasure with
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