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DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
PYC4805
Exam notes
2023
Perfectionist Notes
PRIVATE TUTOR FOR HONOURS IN PSYCHOLOGY - UNISA
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TEXTBOOK USED:
Kail, R. V., Cavanaugh, J. C. & Muller, J. (2019). Human Development. A Life-span View (1 South African ed.). Cengage.
(ISBN978-4743-5957-2)
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CHAPTER 1 THEME 2 - print and add your own notes (research findings, key points)
1. Introduction
Theories explain development and guide research.
Five general perspectives influence current research in human development: psychodynamic theory,
learning theory, cognitive theory, ecological and systems theory, and life-span perspectives.
2. Psychodynamic Theory
Psychodynamic theories propose that development is influenced by how individuals resolve conflicts at
different ages.
Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory is a comprehensive life-span view, building on Freud's ideas.
Erikson's theory consists of eight stages, each with specific challenges people face at different ages.
The theory is based on the epigenetic principle, where each psychosocial strength has a crucial period of
importance.
Successful resolution of challenges in one stage lays the foundation for future stages.
The psychodynamic perspective highlights that the journey to adulthood is challenging, and successful
outcomes depend on how well people overcome life's barriers.
3. Learning Theory
Learning theory focuses on how experience influences a person's behavior.
It emphasizes the role of reinforcement, punishment, and observational learning.
3.1. Behaviorism
John Watson believed learning alone determines a person's development, emphasizing the importance of
experience.
B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning, where consequences of behavior determine whether it's
repeated.
Reinforcement (positive and negative) increases the likelihood of behavior, while punishment decreases it.
Skinner's research showed that reinforcement is more effective than punishment in promoting learning.
3.2. Social Learning Theory
People learn through imitation or observational learning, observing others' behavior.
Imitation is not mechanical copying but influenced by factors like the person's popularity and whether the
behavior is rewarded or punished.
Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory incorporates reward, punishment, and imitation, but also
emphasizes people's active efforts to understand their world.
Bandura's theory introduces the concept of self-efficacy, the belief in one's own abilities and talents,
influencing whether individuals imitate others.
Social cognitive theory differs from operant conditioning by emphasizing active interpretation of
experiences, but both agree that experience plays a significant role in human development.
4. Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Focuses on thought processes and how people construct knowledge actively.
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Three approaches within this perspective: Piaget's theory, Information-processing theory, and Vygotsky's
theory.
4.1. Piaget's Theory
Jean Piaget proposed the theory of cognitive development, emphasizing how children naturally try to make
sense of their world.
Children act like scientists, creating theories about the physical and social world and revising them based
on experience.
Piaget identified four distinct stages of cognitive development, each characterized by more sophisticated
reasoning.
4.2. Information-Processing Theory
Draws parallels between human cognition and computer functioning.
Mental hardware includes cognitive structures and memory; mental software refers to cognitive processes
for specific tasks.
Cognitive changes in children, adolescents, and adults result from improvements in both hardware and
software.
4.3. Vygotsky's Theory
Lev Vygotsky emphasized the sociocultural context in which children develop.
Development is seen as an apprenticeship where children work with skilled adults to learn cultural values
and skills.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the gap between what children can do independently and with
assistance.
Interaction with skilled individuals within the ZPD promotes problem-solving and cognitive development.
Piaget, Information-processing, and Vygotsky agree that cognitive abilities become more sophisticated as
development progresses, but they offer different explanations for the change.
5. The Ecological and Systems Approach
Ecological theories focus on the complexities of environments and their links to development.
Development is inseparable from environmental contexts, and all aspects of development are
interconnected.
Two examples of the ecological and systems approach: Bronfenbrenner's theory and Competence-
Environmental Press theory.
5.1. Bronfenbrenner's Theory
Developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, proposing that the developing person is embedded in a series of
complex and interactive systems.
Four levels: Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, and Macrosystem.
Microsystem: People and objects in an individual's immediate environment.
Mesosystem: Provides connections across microsystems; influences from one microsystem affect others.
Exosystem: Refers to social settings that indirectly influence development.
Macrosystem: The broadest environmental context; encompasses cultures and subcultures.
5.2. Competence-Environmental Press Theory
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