NUR2063 ESSENTIALS OF PATHOPHYSIOLOGY QUESTIONS WITH CORRECT ANSWERS FOR EXAM 1,2,3 & 4 TEST BANK FOR REVISION 2023/2024 GRADED A+ Essentials of Pathophysiology – Exam #1 Review Sheet Covers Modules 1, 2, and 3 – Chapters 1, 2, 6, 12, and 13 1. Define pathophysiology. What does the study of pathophysiology include? - The study of the disorder or breakdown of the human body’s function - etiology (the cause), pathogenesis (manner of development), clinical manifestations, and treatment 2. Review the difference between signs and symptoms/objective versus subjective data - Signs: objective or observed manifestation (example: rash, change in temp) - Symptoms: subjective feeling of abnormality (example: pain, nausea) 3. What is epidemiology? Review the different levels of disease prevention such as primary, secondary, and tertiary as well as examples for each. - study of the patterns of disease involving populations - Primary: preventing illness before it occurs (example: vaccine, hand washing, education, PPE) - Secondary: early detection and screening, as to manage and prevent from getting worse. (mammograms, pap smears, testicular check, blood work, etc.) - Tertiary: prevent further complications from arising from the original cause. (example: stroke: recommend physical therapy) 4. What is homeostasis? - state of balance or equilibrium through maintenance of internal conditions 5. Review the three different stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) including the alarm stage, adaptation/resistance, and exhaustion stage. What complications can occur if stressors are not resolved? - Alarm Stage: fight or flight response to stressful stimulus. - Catecholamines consist of norepinephrine and epinephrine that increase BP , dilate pupils, increase HR, inhibit stomach activity, - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): causes adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids, specifically cortisol ; which may increase blood glucose to provide energy. - prolonged stress can reduce bodies immunity if stress factor is not removed - Adaptation/Resistance stage: activity of nervous and endocrine system returning body to homestasis, body must move past alarm stage. - Exhaustion Stage: point where body can not return to homeostasis after prolonged exposure (example is PTSD) 6. What hormones are released during the alarm stage and what effects do they have on the body? - Catecholamines which are the norepinephrine and epinephrine 7. Review the differences between the sympathetic vs the parasympathetic nervous systems. What happens to the body during “fight -or-flight” response? - pupil dilation - increase HR, RR, BP , - decreased intestine motility, urine production 8. Review the functions of the various organelles of the cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosome, lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisome, golgi apparatus nucleus: control center or brain of cell (DNA and genes stored here), production of messenger RNA that contains instruction to build body’s protein mitochondria: power house of the cell, energy to cell is called ATP , have own set of DNA ribosomes: site of protein production from RNA messenger Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): folded membranes that move proteins around cell Rough ER: ribsomes attached to ER, site pf protein synthesis Smooth ER: ribosomes not attached to smooth ER, functions include: detox, lipid metabolism, synthesis of hormones, calcium storage Golgi Apparatus: flattened membrane that sorts and packages proteins, moves material within and out of cell (packaging plant or like UPS) lysosome: spherical membraneous organelle that contains digestive enzymes (lysis = breakdown). Digest 9. Review the differences between extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid. Which electrolytes are found in high concentration outside the cell versus inside the cell? ECF: sodium, chloride, sodium bicarb ICF: potassium, magnesium, hydrogen phosphate 10. Review how fluid is transported across the plasma membrane of the cell. Review the difference between diffusion and osmosis. Passive transport : no energy, - diffusion - osmosis: movement of water, from high water concentration to low concentration of water Active Transport 11. Review ways that fluids enter the human body (intake) versus ways fluid is excreted (output) out of the body. 12. Review the differences between dehydration and hypotonic hydration. What are signs, symptoms, and causes for each? Dehydration : water output exceeds intake over a period of time. - Example: vomiting, then Extracellular Fluid (ECF) decreases, body tries to maintain homeostasis, hence Intracellular fluid (ICF) pours into the ECF, therefore leading to shrinkage of cell. - Prolonged dehydration leads to weight loss, fever, mental confusion, and hypovolemic shock (decreased blood volume) Signs and symptoms: dry/cotton mouth, extreme thirst, dry flushed skin, decreased urine output (oliguria) Hypotonic Hydration: water intoxication, hence concentration of water increased in ECF. Therefore, leads to concentration of electrolytes decreasing 13. What is edema? Review the various factors that can contribute to edema. 14. Review the signs and symptoms of hypernatremia/hyponatremia, hyperkalemia/hypokalemia, hypercalcemia/hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia/hypermagnesemia, hypophosphatemia/hyperphosphatemia. What electrolyte imbalance would results in positive trousseau’s and Chvostek’s sign? 15. What are the cardinal signs and symptoms of inflammation? - Redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function which is localized - systemic: fever, lethargy, muscle catabolism. More internalized so harder to identify inflammation > look at ESR to identify systemic inflammation 16. Review the role of histamines, bradykinin, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes. What effect do they have on the body during an immune response? - Bradykin : chemical that stimulates pain receptors in body, in order to feel pain > stimulates mast cells and basophils to release histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes - Histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes cause vasodilation 17. Review the differences between innate and adaptive immunity? Which is specific? Which is nonspecific? - Innate (nonspecific) defense system: physical or chemical barrier of body. is ready when needed, or immediate. Born with this defense system. Examples: skin, cough, sneeze, urinate > responses : fever, inflammation, phagocytes (macrophages & neutrophils) that ingest bacterial cells as a defense - adaptive (specific) defense : take time to develop an immunity for disease because of specific organism. > responses: t-cells and b -cells fight, because of memory b cells identifying exposure >B-
cells produce antibodies > T-cells: destroy antigens; such as Cytotoxic T -cells 18. What factors contribute to antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms? How can we prevent the spread of microorganisms? - Caused by excessive use of antibiotics or microorganisms that are expose to antibiotics but are not completely dealt with - Educate patients to take antibiotics accordingly and do not stop abruptly 19. Review the difference between active and passive immunity, know examples for each type. - Passive : transfer of antibodies from an immune person to an unprotected or nonimmunized individual. > immediate but temporary protection > example: mother to fetus by antibodies crossing placenta or mother to infant through breast milk - Active: protected state of the body in result of active infection or immunization 20. What is a hypersensitivity? Review the four different types of hypersensitivities: Type I (Anaphylactic): occurs within 2 -30 minutes of antigen exposure - Mild: hives, seasonal allergic rhinitis, Eczema - IGE acitivates this response - treatment: epinephrine (to open and dilate airways), beta adrenergics (decrease bronchoconstriction) Type II (Cytotoxic): - IGG and IGM activates this response - Rh incompatibility, transfusion, graves disease, myasthenia gravis Type III (Immune complex): when IgG antibodies and antigens form immune complexes therefore activating an inflammatory response. > example: Rheumatoid arthritis, lupus/SLE
