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Lecture notes and article summary - Analyzing International Relations - 2023 - Grade 8.5
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Notes – Analysing International Relations 2023Lecture 01: 01/11/2023
Anarchy
International system
- Various actors that co-exist within a larger system that structures them and their interactions in particular
ways.
- The actors do not flow freely but act in the international context.
- A set of incentives and expectations that shape the identities and the behaviours of actors in international
politics.
- We study the international system because it has effects that cannot be explained simply by examining
the actors themselves.
- The system is influencing the actors.
- Multiple concepts of the international system:
- Anarchy
- Hierarchy
- Interdependence
- Capitalism
Anarchy
The absence of effective central authority above states and other actors.
- There is no effective supranational authority and effective international norms and rules.
- There is no government above governments.
- When states choose to not comply, there is no enforcer.
- However, anarchy does not equal chaos – anarchy and order can co-exist.
- Anarchy sees the UN and EU as a club of states and not above the states.
- The international system is described as the billiard ball model of IR.
Implications of international anarchy
1. Anarchy makes cooperation difficult (Waltz):
- Anarchy -> states are insecure -> all states rely on self-help to survive.
- States cannot rely on international rules and institutions.
- Two options: build arms and/ or form alliances (balance of power).
- There is nothing to prevent war -> anarchy is the condition for war.
- Because of self-help pressure, all states seek security.
- Domestic politics and regime type do not matter in international politics because every state is
responsible for their own security and act in similar ways.
- Fear and mistrust -> security dilemma -> cooperation and institutions building are difficult.
- States do not trust each other.
- Political structures are based on three dimensions:
- Ordering principles (anarchy)
- Principles of differentiation
- Distribution of capabilities
- Key variable for research:
- The distribution of power among states.
- States focus on their relative power (power compared to others).
- The number of great powers (polarity) determines international alliances and risk of war.
- Small states do not matter.
, Notes – Analysing International Relations 2023
Security Dilemma:
- Even when states have defensive intentions, there is still a negative spiral which makes cooperation
difficult.
- All states want to survive and act defensively. However, while creating defensive mechanisms (weapons),
other states create the same mechanisms which creates more mistrust.
- Anarchy -> insecurity -> defensive actions -> more fear and mistrust -> difficulty of cooperation.
Relative gains problem:
- When states face possible cooperation, states focus:
- Absolute gains -> how much do I gain?
- Relative gains -> how does my gain compare to other’s gains?
- Under anarchy, relative gain is more important than absolute gain.
- When other states are gaining, then my state is losing relatively.
- Anarchy -> focus on relative gains -> cooperation is unlikely.
Distribution of power (polarity):
- Unipolar system -> one great power.
- Maximum certainty, clear leadership, and easy domination.
- Very rare because state build arms and alliances to balance against any great power.
- Bipolar system -> two great powers with two blocs.
- High certainty, competition for leadership, and domination within the alliances.
- Multipolar system -> more than three great powers with shifting alliances with each other and small
powers.
- Low certainty, risk of leadership vacuum, and less risk for domination.
2. Anarchy invites aggression by great powers (Mearsheimer):
- Anarchy invites opportunities for aggression by predator states (offensive realism).
- One step further than cooperation is difficult.
- All states seek to maximise their relative power.
- In the anarchic world of international politics, it is better to be Godzilla than Bambi.
- International politics is dominated by the ambitions of great powers, regional hegemons.
- Only paying attention to great powers that can convert their ambitions into action.
- Rise and fall of great powers lead to instability and likelihood of major war.
- The rise and fall of great powers and their ambitions need to be studied.
3. It depends on identities (Wendt) – Anarchy is what states make of it:
- Wendt also argues that the international system is anarchic but has different implications for the system.
- International anarchy does not automatically produce self-help and insecurity.
- Both competitive and cooperative relations are possible.
- Relations under anarchy depend upon how states identify vis-à-vis each other:
- Negative identities (other is unlike us) -> competitive relations and conflict.
- Positive identities (other is like us) -> cooperative relations and community.
- While all missiles can destroy lives, only some are considered dangerous by a specific state.
- It is collective meanings that constitute the structure which organises our actions.
- Identities are shaped and informed by processes of interaction (how governments talk and act and which
values they express) -> governments decide if the other is like or unlike them.
- Significance: peaceful and cooperative relations do not require replacing anarchy with world government.
- A world government is not required for peaceful relations.
, Notes – Analysing International Relations 2023
Reassurance may overcome fear:
- If fear feeds the security dilemma, which makes cooperation difficult, then reassuring words and actions
can promote positive identification and cooperation.
- States need to use words and actions (including self-restraint and de-escalation) to make the other less
fearful and allow focus on shared interests.
- This works best if it is reciprocal.
Identities depend on the domestic regime – democracies cooperate differently with each other:
- Simple interpretations of anarchy suggest that powerful states will dominate international cooperations
and push around smaller states.
- Small allies have great influence among democracies.
- Explanation:
- A community of collective identities based on shared values.
- Democracies have two values:
- Problem-solving through dialogue and openness to civil society.
Alexander Wendt: Anarchy is what states make of it: The social construction of power politics
In what way(s) can the international system be understood in terms of anarchy?
- Anarchy does not naturally produce a self-help system or competitive power politics.
- Anarchy is what states make of it through their interactions and identities.
- The international system can be understood as anarchy by considering how states identify with each
other’s security, whether negatively, positively, or indifferently, which shapes the system as competitive,
cooperative, or individualistic.
What are the defining characteristics of international anarchy?
- In a competitive security system under anarchy, states are hostile, assume intentions from capabilities,
and are concerned with relative gains, making collective action difficult.
- In a cooperative security system, states perceive the security of each as the responsibility of all, which is
not self-help in the traditional sense, as national interests are aligned with international interests.
- The behaviour of states, whether predatory or cooperative, along with the permissive nature of anarchy,
can lead to the formation of a self-help system.
What are its implications for the behaviour of states and other actors, the dynamics of conflict and cooperation,
the sources and functions of international institutions, and processes of change?
- Institutions can arise from the practices and interactions that states engage.
- Change in the international system under anarchy can occur through social learning and interaction,
which can alter the cognitive structures that constitute state identities and interests.
- The meaning of anarchy and power distribution depend on cognitive variations among states, which are
shaped by their practices.
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