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Summary "How Children Develop" -- Fifth Edition
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Psychology: Parental development and the newborn period
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How Children Develop - Fifth edition - SummaryChapter 2: Prenatal Development and the Newborn Period
➔ Prenatal Development
Back in history, we see great differences in how people have thought about prenatal
development. Aristotle: epigenesis: = the emergence of new structures and functions during
development. Other view: preformation.
Conception
Gametes (reproductive cells) are unique in function + each one contains half of the genetic
material; they’re produced through meiosis (= special type of cell division in which the eggs
and sperm receive only one member from each of the 23 chromosome pairs).
Difference in formation gametes: all the eggs a woman will ever have are formed during her
own prenatal development, whereas men produce vast numbers of new sperm continuously.
Process:
Launching of an egg from ovaries → adjoining fallopian tube →
uterus → releases a signal that attracts sperm toward it →
conception, union of sperm and egg (if sexual intercourse takes
place). How? → sperm’s head penetrates the outer membrane of
the egg → chemical reaction (preventing other sperm from
entering) → tail of the sperm falls of → nuclei of the two cells
merge → fertilized egg (=zygote) → prenatal development has
begun.
Developmental processes
4 developmental processes that underlie the transformation of zygote → embryo → fetus:
★ Cell division (mitosis): within 12 hours after fertilization, the zygote divides in two
equal parts, each containing all genetic material. Dividing goes on (4,8,16, etc.) ⇒
eventually, the newborn will consist of trillions of cells.
★ Cell migration: movement of newly formed cells away from their point of origin (e.g
neurons)
★ Cell differentiation: All the embryonic stem cells are equivalent and interchangeable.
However, after several cell divisions, these cells start to specialize in function &
structure.
★ Death: apoptosis (selective death of certain cells) is for example readily apparent in
hand development. The formation of fingers depends on the death of the cells in
between the ridges in the hand plate.
Moreover, we need to call attention to the influence of hormones on prenatal development.
,Hormones causes to develop either male or female genitalia (If androgens are present ⇒
male sex organs develop; If androgens are absent ⇒ female genitalia develop).
Early development
4th day after conception: the cells arrange themselves into the inner cell mass. In this
stage, identical twins (identical genetic makeup) most often originate. Fraternal twins: 2
eggs released from the ovary → fallopian tube → both are fertilized (not more identical
than normal siblings).
End of the first week: implantation occurs: the zygote embed itself in the uterine lining
and becomes dependent on the mother for sustenance. After implantation, the embedded
ball of cells start to diferentiate → inner cell mass becomes the embryo, the rest of the
cells become an elaborate support system → embryo diferentiate into 3 layers → a U-
shaped groove forms down the center of the top layer → folds at the top of the groove
move together and fuse, creating the neural tube (eventually becomes the brain and spinal
cord).
Support system:
★ Amniotic sac: operates as a protective buffer for the developing fetus (providing it
with even temperature and cushioning it against jolting)
★ Placenta: permits the exchange of materials carried in the bloodstreams of the fetus
and its mother. Blood vessels running from the placenta to the embryo and back again
are contained in the umbilical cord.
An illustrated summary of prenatal development:
Cephalocaudal development = the pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop
earlier than areas farther from the head.
Embryo at 4 weeks:
● Embryo = curved tightly.
● Several facial features
● Round area near the top of the head is where the eyes will form
● Round gray area near the back of the “neck” us the primordial inner ear
● Primitive heart is visible; already beating and circulating blood
● Arm bud can be seen in the side of the embryo
Embryo at 5.5-8.5 weeks:
■ 5.5 weeks: Nose, mouth, and palate are beginning to differentiate into
separate structures
■ 8.5 weeks: nose and mouth are almost fully formed
■ Cleft palate (1 of most common birth defects) involves malformations
of this area.
,Fetus of 9-weeks:
★ Head overwhelms the rest of its body
★ Bulging forehead reflects the extremely rapid brain growth
★ Rudimentary eyes and ears are forming
★ All the internal organs are present (still need to undergo further
development)
★ Sexual differentiation has started
★ Ribs are visible, fingers and toes have emerged, nails are growing
★ Fetus makes spontaneous movements
Fetus 11 weeks:
➢ Heart has achieved its basic adult structure
➢ Developing spine, ribs, and divisions of the brain
Last 5 months:
➔ Growth of lower part of the body accelerates
➔ Fetus’s movements have increased
➔ By week 16, fetus = capable of ‘intense’ kicks
➔ External genitalia are substantially developed
➔ By week 18, fetus is covered with very fine hair
➔ Components of facial expressions are present
➔ Fetus rapidly puts on weight & decrease in fetal movements
➔ By week 28, eyes can open and move
➔ Auditory system is functioning (fetus can hear and can react to sounds)
➔ Last 3 months: fetus grows dramatically in size.
Fetal Behavior
Movement: from 5 or 6 weeks after conception, the fetus starts moving:
★ hiccups (burping reflex, preparing the fetus for eventual nursing by removing air from
the stomach and making more room for milk).
★ Swallowing reflex:swallowing amniotic fluid: benefit: tongue movements associated
with drinking and swallowing promote the normal development of the palate.
★ The fetus promotes its respiratory readiness by exercising it slungs through fetal
breathing, moving its chest wall in and out.
★ Various other movements are initially uncoordinated but gradually become more
integrated.
Behavior cycles
★ Rest-activity cycles emerge as early as 10 weeks and become very stable during the
2nd half of pregnancy.
★ Longer-term patterns (daily circadian rhythms) become apparent, with less activity in
the morning and more activity in the late evening
Fetal experience
, Sight and touch: Fetuses respond to maternal movements, experience tactile stimulation as
a result of its own activity, visual experience is minimal.
Taste: Fetuses can detect favors of the amniotic fuid → taste sensitivity and favor
preferences exist before birth.
Smell: smells can be transmitted through liquid, and amniotic fluid comes into contact with
the fetus’s odor receptors through fetal breathing.
Hearing: Womb = filled with noise; maternal sounds, breathing, swallowing, human
voices, music.
Fetal learning
Fetuses learn from many of its experience in the last 3 months of pregnancy. Direct evidence
for human fetal learning comes from studies of habituation (= simple form of learning that
involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation) and dishabituation (=
introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus).
Do newborns remember anything about their fetal experience? → yes:
- Experiences in the womb can lead to long-lasting taste preferences.
- Newborns remember sound they heard in the womb + they exhibit numerous
additional auditory preferences based on prenatal experience.
➔ Hazards to Prenatal Development
Environmental influences that can have harmful effects on prenatal development:
Teratogens: an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development.
A crucial factor is timing. Many teratogens only cause damage if they are present during a
sensitive period.
○ Thalidomide: caused babies with major limb deformities. Sensitive period was
between the 4th and 6th week after conception (time where the limbs are
emerging and developing)
○ Amount and duration of exposure: most teratogens show a dose-response
relation: the greater the fetus’s exposure to a potential teratogen, the more
likely he/she will suffer damage and the more severe any damage is likely to
be. Multiple risk factors can have a cumulative impact on development.
○ Effects can also vary according to individual differences in genetic
susceptibility.
● Drugs: pregnant woman should take drugs only under the supervision of a physician.
○ Antidepressants: raise challenging issues for women contemplating
pregnancy. Antidepressants are beneficial for individuals experiencing
depression. However, depression during the perinatal period is problematic for
the women as well as their child. Concerns have been raised about potential
negative effects of SSRIs.
○ Opioids: medication, prescribed for pain management; can be highly
damaging to fetuses, who can become addicted themselves; it can cause
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