KSU FNDH 400 Final Cumulative Exam, Complete Verified Solution

KSU FNDH 400 Final Cumulative Exam, Complete Verified Solution Carbohydrates are made of Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Proteins are made of Carbon, Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen Lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids Lipids are made of Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Macronutrients definition Nutrients needed in large amounts Micronutrients definition Nutrients needed in smaller amounts but still important What are the macronutrients? Carbs, Proteins, Lipids, Water What are the micronutrients? Vitamins and minerals What is a vitamin COMPOUNDS essential for normal physiological processes What is a mineral ELEMENTS essential for normal physiological processes in the body What is a calorie? Energy needed to raise 1 g of water 1 degree C How are kcals determined A food is put into a bomb calorimeter and the energy output is determined by the heat produced Kcal/g of the nutrients Carbs: 4 Proteins: 4 Lipids: 9 Vitamins, Minerals, Water: 0 Alcohol: 7 (but not a nutrient) Phytochemical definition Compounds found in plants that are believed to provide healthy benefits beyond the traditional nutrients Phytochemical found in tomatoes that is thought to decrease cancer risk (esp. prostate) Lycopene Diets rich in _____ and ___ have been shown with a decreased rate in chronic diseases. fruits and vegetables Zoochemicals Compounds found in animals that are believed to provide healthy benefits beyond the traditional nutrients Compounds that are both phyto and zoochemicals Lutein and Zeaxanthin - yellow carotenoids found in kale, spinach, and corn. or found in egg yolk Functional food defintion A food, or food ingredient, that may provide a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains Scientific method 3 types of studies Cross-sectional: Present Case-control: Past Prospective cohort: future Cross-sectional study Compare different populations at the same point in time Example of a cross-sectional study French paradox. Despite consuming same amount of cholesterol/saturated fat france had 5x lower death rate from coronary heart disease. Led to research into resveratol (red wine) Ecologic fallacy Believing that members of the group have characteristcs, which as individuals they do not Case control study Look at a group of cases vs controls Retrospective Often uses food frequency questionnaires Prospective Cohort study Initial information on a group collected (food frequency questionnaire) and then group is followed over time to quantify health outcomes of the individual Framingham Heart Study Started in 1948 Following residents to identify risk factors for heart disease Nurses Health Study Started in 1976 Every 4 years, 122k nurses are given food frequency questionnaires Health Professionals Follow up study Started in 1986 51K male health professionals Every 4 years, food frequency questionnaires From the Health Professionals Follow Up study, what was determined Tomato sauce, tomatoes, pizza, and strawberries had decreased incidence of prostate cancer What did the foods have in common from the Health Professionals Follow Up Study? Tomato -- Lycopene Strawberries -- Anthocyanins In vitro research Simplest form of nutrition research Means "within glass" Cell culture In vivo research Animal study often mice and Rats Pros/Cons of in vivo research Pros Can do tests that are considered unethical for humans Knows exactly what subject eats Expert reporting Cons Animal metabolism/physiology is different Clinical trial Scientifically controlled study using consenting people to find the safety and effectiveness of different items/regimens Gold standard A p-value of less than ___ is used to indicate statistical significance. Meaning that... .05 5% of the time the results are accidental or not true OR, RR, HR values and signficance 1 is lowered risk with exposure 1 is no effect 1 is increased risk with exposure Confidence interval Estimated range that the measure is calulated to include Often 95% Large VI = Less confidence in value Small CI = More confidence in value Must not overlap 1 for OR,RR, or HR to be considered significant American Society for Nutrition publishes which journals? Journal of Nutrition American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Academy of Nutrition and Dietics publishes which journals? Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Systematic literature review; considers which type of studies Finds conclusion based on evidence in multiple journal articles Only considers Epidemiological studies and Clinical Trials Epiemiolgical studies ____ show causalty Cannot. Instead just identifies relationships or associations What is the best form of primary research? Clinical trials/human studies Ranking of research types, from best to worse Systematic Literature Reviews Clincial trials Prospective Cohort Case-Control Cross-Sectional Animal Studies/In vivo In vitro Order of research progression Epidemiological In vitro Animal studies Clinical trials Beta carotene and lung cancer Thought high dose beta-carotene would decrease lung cancer risk, but actually increased it! Selenium, Vitamin E, Prostate Cancer Thought it would decrease prostate cancer. Vitamin E increased cancer, Selenium increased diabetes Secondary result Not primary outcome the trial was designed to find Reductionist approach Takes a complex food and reduces it to simpler componets Monosaccharides Glucose Fructose Galactose Disaccharides Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose Glucose + Glucose = Maltose Glucose + Galactose = Lactose What are polysaccharides? Common forms? 10 sugars Starch (Amylose and Amylopectin) Glycogen Fibers (Cellulose, Gums, Pectin) Oligosaccharides Raffinose Stachyose Glucose 6-member ring Product of photosynthesis Major source of energy in our body Fructose - bond appearance? 5-member ring Commonly found in fruits Commercially used in many beverages Galactose 6-member ring Not normally found in nature alone How are disaccharides formed? 2 monosacharides and a hydration reaction Maltose Glucose + Glucose Alpha bond Malt sugar Seldom found in foods Alcoholic beverages and barley Sucrose Glucose + Fructose Alpha Bond Table Sugar Only made by plants Calories Lactose; bond Galactose + Glucose Beta bond Milk Sugar Glycosidic Sugar bond Why do we need lactase? To break the beta bond found in lactose High fructose corn syrup ratio 42-55% Fructose 45-58% Glucose VERY similar to sucrose Sugar Alcohol "Sugar replacer" Nutritive sweeteners -- Calories Nearly as sweet as sucrose, half the calories Why are sugar alcohols often found in gum? Not fermented by bacteria on the tooth surface -- No dental caries How does sugar cause tooth decay? Fermented by bacteria on surface of teeth Higher acidity which leads to decay Tagatose Isomer of fructose Small amount of energy (1.5kcal/g) 80% reaches large intestine to be fermented by bacteria = prebiotic-like Structurally similar to sugar alcohol Non-nutritive sweteners Aspartame Advantame Acesulfame-Potassium (K) Luo Han Guo Fruit Extract Stevia Saccharin Sucralose Neotame Saccharin If used in cooking, will develop bitter taste Aspartame Broken down to amino acids during digestion provides 4 kcal/g but not significant Can be broken down to phenylalanine When heated, loses its sweet flavor Neotame Structurally identical to aspartame but has additional side group Sweeter than aspartame Heat-stable Not broken down to amino acids -- No PKU trouble Advantame Heat stable High acceptable daily intake Sweetest Newest Acesulfame-Potassium (K) Not digested or absorbed No energy Sucralose Structurally similar to sucrose except 3 of alcohol groups are replaced by Chlorine b/c of this Not digested Stevia Plant Steviol glycosides -- sweet taste Luo han guo fruit extracts Chinese fruit Mogrosides -- Sweet taste How does our body deal with oligosaccharides Cannot digest alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds Fermented by bacteria in colon -- Gas Beano Alpha-galactosidase breaks down oligosaccharides How is starch used in plants Storage form of glucose Amylose structure Linear polysaccharide alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds Amylopectin stucture Branched alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds Which amylo is more common in starch? Amylopectin is more common than amylose (4:1) Glycogen is used how in animals Storage form of glucose Glycogen structure Highly branched alpha 1-6 branched bonds alpha 1-4 linear Advantage of glycogen highly branched structure Multiple ends are where enzymes cleave off glucose molecules Do we get glycogen No! broken down in animals after slaughter Fiber definition indigestible matter Dietary fiber Non digestible carbs and lignins that are intrinsic and intact in plants Functional fiber Isolated, nondigestible carbs that have beneficial physiological effects in humans Total fiber dietary fiber and functional Dietary vs functional fiber Dietary: Intact in Plants Carbs and lignins Only from plants No proven benefit Functional fiber: Isolated, extracted, synthesized Only carbs From plants or animals Must prove benefit Polysaccharide fiber differes from other polysaccharides in what structural way contains beta-glycosidic bonds (as opposed to alpha glycosidic bonds) Cannot be broken down Good foods with nonfermentable nonviscous fiber Whole wheat, whole-grain cereals, broccoli, and other veggies Benefits of nonfermenable nonviscous fiber Increase stool bulk, reduce transit time -- Lowers risk of constipation Lower risk of colon cancer-- Less exposure to consumed carcinogens Sources of fermentable viscous fiber Oats, rice bran, psyllium seeds, soy, some fruits Benefits of fermentable viscous fiber Lowers risk of heart disease and diabetes Slows absorption of glucose -- Prevents blood glucose from spiking after consuming carbs Binds bile acids (cholesterol) and causes them to be excreted -- More cholesterol used to create bile acids -- Low cholesterol Protein synthesis DNA contains genetic code that's used as a template to create mRNA in transcription. mRNA then moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasam where it serves as a template for translation, where tRNAs bring in amino acids to form polypeptide Protein structure function Collagen - scaffolding of the body Hormone Compound produced in one tissue, released into circulation, then has an effect on a different organ Proteins and Fluid balance Proteins help maintain balance between plasma and interstitial fluid Acid Base balance Proteins act as buffers How can proteins be used for energy? Gluconeogenisis -- Forms glucose Essential amino acids Body cannot synthesize at all Conditionally essential amino acids Under normal circumstances the body can synthesize these, but are essential for individuals in certain situations (ex. PKU and the need for Tyrosine) Non-essential Can be made in body, do not need to consume them PKU and diet Phenalyenine would typically be broken down into tyrosine. Due to a mutation, it cannot be. Phen and its metabolites build up leading to brain damage and mental retardation. Must have low protein diet and avoid aspartame because it is broken down to phen Complete proteins Provide adequate amounts of all nine essential amino acids Good sources: animal proteins Incomplete proteins Do not contain adequate amounts of one or more essential amino acids Often plant based proteins How do you solve incomplete proteins? Complementary proteins Complementary proteins When you pair two or more incomplete proteins with different limiting amino acids to provide adequate amounts of essential Measures of protein quality BV - Biological Value PER - Protein Efficiency Ratio AAS - Chemical/Amino Acid Score PDCAAS - Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score DIAAS - Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score Biological value (BV) [(gram of nitrogen retained) / (grams of nitrogen absorbed)] x 100 Protein efficiency ratio (PER) (grams of weight gained) / ( gains of protein consumed) Commonly performed in growing rats Chemical/Amino Acid Score (AAS) (Test food limiting essential amino acid) / (needs of same amino acid score) Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid (PDCAAS) (Amino Acid Score) x (Digestibility) Most widely used Was preferred by Food and Agriculture Association and WHO until recently Score truncated at 100 Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) 100 x (mg of digestible dietary indispensable amino acid in 1g of the dietary protein) / (mg of the same dietary indispensable amino acid in 1g of the reference protein) New standard Why DIAAS is better No truncating scores Samples from intestine instead of fecal matter Measures digestion of individual amino acids, not just crude protein 3 reference groups instead of one Protein deficiency is commonly called Protein-energy malutrition Kwashiorkor "The disease that the first child gets when the new child comes" Marginal energy, inadequate protein intake Marasmus "To waste away" Inadequate protein and energy intake What do lipids consist of Triglycerides Fatty Acids Phospholipids Sterols What are considered fats? Triglycerides, fatty acids, and phospholipids that provide 9kcal.g Oil according to chemist vs nutrition Chemist: Oil b/c solid at room temp Nutrition: Fat b/c 9kcal/g Difference of fatty acids Carbon chain length Saturation/Unsaturation Double bond configurations Fatty acid chain length and classification Short: 6 Medium: 6-10 Long 12 Most fatty acids contain somewhere between ____ carbons with ____ numbers more common than ___. 4-24 carbons Even more common than odd Carbon chain length and melting points Longer chain, higher melting point What does a unsaturated fatty acid contain? Double bond Which is the more natural double bond formation is unsaturated fatty acids? cis Difference between cis and trans/sat fat Cis do not pack together as well Cis have lower melting point Source of trans fat in our diets Hydrogenation (addition of a hydrogen) Stick-margarine Reasons for hydrogenation More solid texture More shelf stable (double bonds in ufa are susceptible to oxidation) Partial hyrdrogenation Cis -- Trans + Saturated fats Which is worse trans or saturated fat? Why? Trans, alters biomarkers for cardiovascular disease Trans: Increase LDL and lowers HDL Sat: increases LDL, doesn't change HDL Three naming systems for fatty acids Delta Omega Common What do you need to know for delta? Number of carbons Number of double bonds Number of carbons from carboxylic acid end to first carbon in double bond How to name delta Carbon number: Double bonds ^double bond location from carboxylic end 10:1 triangle^7 Need to know to name with omega Number of carbons Number of double bonds Number of carbons from methyl end to first carbon in double bond 10:1 n-3 Linoleic acid omega 6 essential can be elongated by elongase enzymes for eicosanoid production a-Linolenic Acid omega-3 essential can be elongated by elongase enzymes for eicosanoid production Source of omega-6 Corn, walnut, soybean Source of omega-3 Flax seed Source of mufa Canola and olive oil Source of saturated fatty acids Lard, palm oil, butter, coconut oil Why are linoleic and alpha linoleic acid essential? Why are other fatty acids not? We don't have an enzyme capable of adding a double bond beyond the omega-9 carbon (can't add omega 3 and omega 6 bonds) Other fatty acids are not essential because we have enzymes that can take them, elongate them (add 2 carbons) and then further desaturate them (add double bonds) to other omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Eicosanoids Biologically active in the body, act locally in the tissue they are producing 4 classes of eicosanoids Prostaglandins Prostacyclins Thromboxanes Leukotrienes What is the cause of the difference in effects of omega 3 and omega 6? Result of the eicosanoids produced from them Health effects of omega 6 vs omega 3 omega 3 are considered anti-inflamatory when they replace omega-6 Example of eicosanoids Asprin, inhibits Cox-1 and Cox-2 What is the most effective way to get long chain fatty acids into our body? why? Dietary. A-la conversion to EPA and DHA is very limited Essential fatty acid deprivation