Unit A2 2 - Biochemistry, Genetics and Evolutionary Trends
Institution
CCEA
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Biology for CCEA A2 Level
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Unit A2 2 - Biochemistry, Genetics and Evolutionary Trends
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Respiration
ATP is Adenosine Triphosphate Where is ATP used; Aerobic respiration STAGE 2 - Link Reaction The 2 carbon Acetyl CoA from the link reaction combines with 4
-Nucleotide adenine, Ribose sugar Movement (aids in muscle contraction) C6H12O6 + 6O2 => 6CO2 + 6H2O Pyruvate transported to
carbon acid (oxaloacetate) to produce a 6 carbon acid (citrate)
Pyruvate (3C) matrix
& three inorganic phosphate Nerve transmission (Na+/K+ active + Energy (38 ATP) with the coenzyme A unbinding and going back to the link
NAD CO2 It is decarboxylated and
groups transport pumps require ATP) Anaerobic respiration reaction.
NADH dehydrogenation takes place
-Immediate source of energy in a Active transport- ATP can change C6H12O6 => 2C3H6O3 (Lactic
cell shape of carrier proteins in plasma acid) /=>2C2H6O (Ethanol)2CO2 leading to formation of NADH
Acetate (2C) The (6C) citrate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated resulting
membranes to allow molecules/ions to and oxidising the compound.
in the formation of (5C) oxoglutarate with the loss of CO2 and
ATP is synthesised from ADP (Adenosine be moved against concentration Glucose is activated by Following these processes,
Coenzyme A Hydrogen.
diphosphate) and one inorganic phosphate gradient phosphorylation (to make it Acetate then combines with
group (Pi) Metabolic processes- building larger more reactive) involving Acetyl CoA coenzyme A
(5C) Oxoglutarate is decarboxylated with loss of CO2 and one
Known as phosphorylation (addition of complex molecules from smaller hydrolysis of 2 ATP molecules, molecule of ATP is created by substrate level phosphorylation
phosphate to a molecule) makes molecule simpler molecules, e.g. ATP required in converting it into (6C) fructose STAGE 3 - Krebs Cycle (transfer of a phosphate group from the compound to ADP)
more energy rich (ATP) bisphosphate. Acetyl CoA Coenzyme A
DNA and protein synthesis
Involves a condensation reaction (removal The compound is then dehydrogenated three times, the first two
of water) Following phosphorylation, (6C) times NAD is used as a hydrogen carrier, becoming NADH or
STAGE 1 - Glycolysis fructose bisphosphate splits into reduced NAD. The third time it is FAD that picks up two hydrogen
The breakdown of ATP to ADP+P Glucose 2 (3C) triose phosphate. The atoms becoming FADH2
This process is triose phosphate molecules are Citrate (6C)
releases energy but involves 2x ATP -Occurs twice as there are two acetyl CoA
anaerobic and each oxidised by dehydrogenase
hydrolysis (splitting molecule using 2x ADP CO2 molecules for every glucose
occurs in the enzymes. The two hydrogen OxaloacetateI (4C)
water)
cytoplasm atoms are picked up by NAD
Reaction is catalysed by ATPase
hydrogen carrier molecule NAD - NADH
Why is ATP a good energy storage molecule (6C) Fructose bisphosphate becoming reduced NAD (NADH) STAGE 4- Electron Transport Chain
-Hydrolysis of ATP releases relatively small This converts the triose phosphate Oxoglutarate (5C) Hydrogen passes along the carriers NAD,
amount of energy- allows energy to be into (3C) pyruvate, this creates two FADH2 flavoprotein an coenzyme Q. Following the
released in small, manageable steps during 2X (3C) Triose phosphate
ATP molecules per conversion for a Coenzyme Q stage the hydrogen dissociates
energy requiring reactions 4 ADP+P 2x NAD total of four. This means there is a FAD into electrons and electron transport chain acts
-Hydrolysis of ATP is a single reaction 4 ATP 2x NADH net increase of 2 ATP molecules as CO2 as an electron carrier. The electrons pass along
(breaking of one bond) releasing immediate two were used up to phosphorylate the cytochromes in a series of redox reactions.
energy allowing the cell to have fine control 2X (3C) Pyruvate 2x NADH
glucose. ATP ADP+P As carriers lie at
over its immediate energy budget 2x NAD
progressively lower
-Small, soluble = transported around cell energy levels along the
easily, from mitochondria to any other part In lactate fermentation, 2 reduced It is significant the NADH 2 ATP are In animals this is advantageous and exercising muscles will respire In plants the ethanol is not chain, energy becomes
ATP is universal- increases efficiency in cells NAD become oxidised to form NAD is oxidised again to take created which is anaerobically and aerobically which means extra energy is produced. converted back to pyruvate
available as the redox
and reduce the pyruvate forming up more hydrogen very inefficient The lactate is removed when sufficient oxygen is available, it can be and is eliminated as a waste
Anaerobic respiration lactate. reactions take place, at
acceptors during however it is converted back to glucose or metabolised, this is called oxygen product. Anaerobic
Glycolysis will only continue if products In ethanol fermentation, the same certain points there is
glycolysis otherwise it very fast debt. - Supplied through continued rapid breathing and high heart respiration allows production
are removed and not allowed to happens however the pyruvate is enough energy to
would stop. occurring only rate of ATP to be maintained, not
accumulate. Pyruvate is converted to also decarboxylated with the produce ATP by oxidative
in the cytoplasm OXYGEN DEBT - The additional oxygen required to further an issue as plants have a low
lactate in animals and ethanol in plants release of CO2 phosphorylation.
metabolise the accumulated lactic acid or for the resynthesis of ATP. metabolic rate.
and yeast.
Other respiratory substrates The final hydrogen accepter is oxygen, it The carriers are organised and arranged in a sequence of
Proteins are hydrolysed into amino Fats and proteins enter the pathway combines with hydrogen to form water, the decreasing potential energy, each carrier downstream has slightly
Lipids are hydrolysed into glycerol acids and following deamination; late in glycolysis or past it which final stage is catalysed by enzyme cytochrome stronger reducing power than the one immediately before it.
and fatty acids. enter the cycle as Acetyl CoA, means they are not used in oxidase. Hydrogen and electrons are able to move along the chain with
Glycerol is converted into triose pyruvate or an intermediate anaerobic respiration. Each reduced NAD produces 3 ATP molecules- as carriers being successively reduced and oxidised as they pass
phosphate- fatty acids converted into compound in the krebs cycle. FAD enters at a slightly lower energy level it only along in a series of redox reactions.
Acetyl CoA produces 2 ATP
Biology A2 2 Page 1
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