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NOTES ON LECTURESEMOTION & COGNITION – IBP – 2018/2019
Derksen 0
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Lecture 1: Introduction to Emotions
• Emotions: brief state of the brain that incorporates everything (bodily response, heart rate,
subjective feeling, and behavioral consequences.
• Important for survival and social skills – action and reactions.
• Mental disorders (anxiety disorder).
• Well-being depends on emotions.
• Phenomenal experience: conscious experience of the emotion, feelings, interpretations of
emotions.
• Physiological pattern: Automatic physiological responses (heart beat).
• Verbal and nonverbal expression: crying, shouting, fight or flight.
• Ekman focuses on six basic emotions: fear, anger, disgust, joy, sadness, and surprise. These
emotions can also be mixed – mixed emotions.
• Emotion expression in human face. Some emotions are not displayed by the face (jealousy).
The muscles underlying emotional expressions are also complex and connected to each
other, so there is a lot of variability.
• Emotion properties: relatively distinct, but mixed-emotions possible; subtle differences across
studies; universal across cultures, but different expressions; evolutionary purpose; emotions
come in pairs.
• Mixed emotions can also be fear and sad at the same time, emotions may follow each other
sequentially.
• Ekman: emotions are universal across cultures.
• Real world scenario’s not taken into account in Ekman’s study. That’s why Russell suggested it
doesn’t make sense to make categorical classification of emotions. Dimensions make more
sense.
• Lacking cross-cultural overlap – Efenbein & Ambady: the in-group advantage is moderated by
cross-cultural exposure suggesting that such contact can help to erase these differences and
can lead to greater understanding.
o Minority groups recognize emotional expressions of majority better than majority
group themselves.
• Study by Friesen & Matsumoto: Japanese adapted their expressions to hide their negative
emotions; emotions are flexible, and they may not necessarily reflect the true feelings;
Japanese are more likely to display surprise than Americans.
• Cultural differences:
o Positive emotions are more important for Americans.
o In Japan, negative and positive emotions should be in balance.
o In Japan, some positive emotions are felt more and considered more important.
• Study by Masuda & Nisbett & Kitayama:
o Japanese made more statements about contextual information and relationships
than Americans.
o Americans tend to ignore contextual information when making judgments.
o The surrounding people’s emotions influenced Japanese but not Americans’
perceptions of the central person.
• Why do we have emotions?
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o Adaptive functions, universal (Darwin)
▪ Survival, natural selection over time.
o Bodily response (James)
▪ To deal with the situation.
o Quick decisions (Damasio, Le Doux)
▪ Strong bodily response for better memory and better memorization of
events when important.
o Based on appraisal (Arnold)
▪ Emotions help to evaluate and make better decisions.
o Social constructs (Averill)
▪ Passion rather than action.
• Darwin → Verbal and nonverbal expression.
• Principle of serviceable associated habits.
o Purpose during evolution (but not anymore necessarily).
o Emotion have or had a purpose.
• Principle of antithesis.
o Most emotions have a counterpart.
o An emotion can be an anti-emotion of something else, although there is not
necessarily a use for it.
• Principle of expressive habits through the nervous system.
o Distinct reaction by the brain.
o Emotions are a reflection of a distinct state in the nervous system.
• Why measure emotions? Diagnose mental disorder.
• Measuring emotions: questionnaire, introspection, emotional Stroop task.
• Traditional view: perception of event → phenomenal experience → physiological pattern and
verbal and nonverbal expression.
• Jamesian: perception of event → physiological pattern → phenomenal experience and verbal
and nonverbal expression.
o The physiological pattern precedes the feeling and interpretation of the emotion.
• Lange’s idea: physiological arousal causes emotion.
o Change in body alters your emotions (facial feedback hypothesis).
o Cognitive inhibition of your body weakens emotions.
o Substance-induced bodily changes alter emotions and related neural activity.
• Salient stimuli & amygdala EXAM.
• Cannon’s criticism: emotional expression results from the function of hypothalamic
structures, and emotional feeling results from stimulations of the dorsal thalamus. The
physiological changes and subjective feeling of an emotion in response to a stimulus are
separate and independent; arousal does not have to occur before the emotion.
o FALSE: Visceral changes too slow to be source of emotion.
o FALSE: Separating body from CNS does not alter emotional behavior in animals.
o FALSE: Artificial induction of visceral changes typical for emotions do not produce
them (adrenalin).
o TRUE: Relation bodily states – emotional states not 1:1.
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• Adaption to James-Lange: cannon-bard criticism led scientists to adapt James-Lange theory
because:
o Not all physiological changes showed the same pattern per emotion and cognition is
sometimes necessary to know which emotion is experienced
o Adrenaline injection induced APPRAISAL-dependent emotions.
• Schachter’s two-factor theory: cognitive interpretation checks the situation you are in, at the
same time, there are activations of the autonomic nervous system. The interpretation also
depends on the arousal pattern, and the arousal pattern depends on the interpretation.
Finally; emotion experience.
• Theoretical conclusions so far:
o James-Lange theory claims that bodily reactions cause the emotional experience.
o Autonomic responses are not completely undifferentiated (contra Cannon,
Schachter).
o … but not specific enough to induce emotions (cognition is necessary).
o Interaction between autonomic responses and cognition BEFORE emotional
experience.
• Emotion categories: it is not easy to dissociate between emotion categories.
o Some based on suggestions, not science.
o Some based on universality across cultures.
o Some based on most common facial expressions.
o Some based on biological mechanisms (survival).
• Subjective emotions: “basic” emotions is subjective label. Dimensions rather than categories
to investigate emotions.
• Subjective vs objective dimensions → ratings are subjective but calculating the dimensions is
an objective method.
• Emotion dimensions:
o Arousal (+ high vs. – low)
o Valence (+ positive vs. - negative)
o Goals (+ reward vs. - punishment)
o Active vs. passive (+ delivery, - omission)
o Probability of the goal (certainty/predictability)
• Models of emotions developed over time leading to the conclusion that:
o Emotion = interaction between body and cognition.
o But not full overlap between body & emotion.
o Emotions can probably not be completely basic.
o Dimensions are more accurate than categories.
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