Invitation to Psychology (6th Edition) Chapter 1 Latest Update 2024 Graded A+

Invitation to Psychology (6th Edition) Chapter 1 Latest Update 2024 Graded A+ Psychology - ANS-The discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism's physical state, mental state, and external environment; the term is often represented by ψ, the Greek letter psi (usually pronounced sy). Empirical - ANS-Relying on or derived from observation, experimentation, or measurement. Phrenology - ANS-The nowdiscredited theory that different brain areas account for specific character and personality traits, which can be "read" from bumps on the skull. Functionalism - ANS-An early psychological approach that emphasized the function or purpose of behavior and consciousness. Psychoanalysis - ANS-A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy, originally formulated by Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts. Biological Perspective - ANS-A psychological approach that emphasizes bodily events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts. Evolutionary Psychology - ANS-A field of psychology emphasizing evolutionary mechanisms that may help explain human commonalities in cognition, development, emotion, social practices, and other areas of behavior. Learning Perspective - ANS-A psychological approach that emphasizes how the environment and experience affect a person's or animal's actions; it includes behaviorism and social-cognitive learning theories. Cognitive Perspective - ANS-A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior. Sociocultural Perspective - ANS-A psychological approach that emphasizes social and cultural influences. Basic Psychology - ANS-The study of psychological issues for the sake of knowledge rather than for its practical application. Applied Psychology - ANS-The study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance; also, the application of psychological findings. Psychotherapist - ANS-Does any kind of psychotherapy; may have anything from no degree to an advanced professional degree; the term is unregulated. Psychoanalyst - ANSPsychiatrist - ANS-Practices psychoanalysis; has specific training in this approach after an advanced degree (usually, but not always, an M.D. or a Ph.D.); may treat any kind of emotional disorder or pathology. Academic/Research Psychologists - ANS-Specialize in areas of basic or applied research, such as: Human development Psychometrics (testing) Health Education Industrial/organizational Physiological psychology Design and use of technology Sensation and perception Clinical Psychologists - ANS-Do psychotherapy and sometimes research; may work in any of these settings: General hospitals Mental health clinics Mental hospitals Research laboratories Colleges and universities Private practice Psychologists in Industry, law, or Other Settings - ANS-Do research or serve as consultants to institutions on such issues as: Sports Consumer issues Advertising Organizational problems Environmental issues Public policy Opinion polls Military training Animal behavior Legal issues Licensed clinical social worker (LCSW); marriage, family, and child counselor (MFCC) - ANS-Treats common individual and family problems, but may also deal with more serious problems such as addiction or abuse; generally has at least an M.A. in psychology or social work, though licensing requirements vary. Clinical Psychologist - ANS-Diagnoses, treats, and/or studies mental and emotional problems, both mild and severe; has a Ph.D., an Ed.D., or a Psy.D. Critical Thinking - ANS-The ability and willingness to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence rather than emotion or anecdote. Hypothesis - ANS-A statement that attempts to predict or to account for a set of phenomena; scientific hypotheses specify relationships among events or variables and are empirically tested. Operational Defintion - ANS-A precise definition of a term in a hypothesis, which specifies the operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon being defined. Principle of falsifiability - ANS-The principle that a scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation; that is, the theory must predict not only what will happen but also what will not happen. Confirmation Bias - ANS-The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one's own belief, and ignore, trivialize, or forget information that disconfirms that belief. Argument by anecdote - ANS-generalizing from a personal experience or a few examples to everyone: One crime committed by a paroled ex-convict means that parole should be abolished Theory - ANS--An organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain a specified set of observations and their interrelationships. Descriptive Methods - ANS-Methods that yield descriptions of behavior but not necessarily causal explanations. Case Study - ANS-A detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated. Observational Study - ANS-A study in which the researcher carefully and systematically observes and records behavior without interfering with the behavior; it may involve either naturalistic or laboratory observation. Psychological Tests - ANS-Procedures used to measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, and values. Standardize - ANS-In test construction, to develop uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test. Norms - ANS-In test construction, established standards of performance. Reliability - ANS-In test construction, the consistency of test scores from one time and place to another. Validity - ANS-The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure. Surveys - ANS-Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions. Volunteer Bias - ANS-A shortcoming of findings derived from a sample of volunteers instead of a representative sample; the volunteers may differ from those who did not volunteer. Correlation Study - ANS-A descriptive study that looks for a consistent relationship between two phenomena. Correlation - ANS-A measure of how strongly two variables are related to each other. Variables - ANS-Characteristics of behavior or experience that can be measured or described by a numeric scale. Positive Correlation - ANS-An association between increases in one variable and increases in another, or between decreases in one and decreases in the other. Negative Correlation - ANS-An association between increases in one variable and decreases in another. Coefficient of Correlation - ANS-A measure of correlation that ranges in value from -1.00 to +1.00. Experiment - ANS-A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another. Informed Consent - ANS-The doctrine that anyone who participates in human research must do so voluntarily and must know enough about the study to make an intelligent decision about whether to take part. Controlled Condition - ANS-In an experiment, a comparison condition in which subjects are not exposed to the same treatment as are those in the experimental condition. Random Assignment - ANS-A procedure for assigning people to experimental and control groups in which each individual has the same probability as any other of being assigned to a given group. Placebo - ANS-An inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control in an experiment. Experimenter Effects - ANS-Unintended changes in subjects' behavior as a result of cues that the experimenter inadvertently conveys. Single-Blind Study - ANS-An experiment in which subjects do not know whether they are in an experimental or a control group. Double-Blind Study - ANS-An experiment in which neither the people being studied nor the individuals running the study know who is in the control group and who is in the experimental group until after the results are tallied. Field Research - ANS-Descriptive or experimental research conducted in a natural setting outside the laboratory. Descriptive Statistics - ANS-Statistics that organize and summarize research data. Arithmetic Mean - ANS-An average that is calculated by adding up a set of quantities and dividing the sum by the total number of quantities in the set. Standard Deviation - ANS-A commonly used measure of variability that indicates the average difference between scores in a distribution and their mean. Inferential Statistics - ANS-Statistical procedures that allow researchers to draw inferences about how statistically meaningful a study's results are. Significance Tests - ANS-Statistical tests that assess how likely it is that a study's results occurred merely by chance. Confidence Interval - ANS-A statistical measure that provides, with a specified probability, a range of values within which a population mean is likely to lie. Longitudinal study - ANS-A study in which people (or animals) are followed and periodically reassessed over a period of time. Cross-sectional study - ANS-A study in which groups of people (or animals) of different ages are compared at a given time. Effect size - ANS-An objective, standardized way of describing the strength of the independent variable's influence on the dependent variable. Meta-analysis - ANS-A set of techniques for combining and analyzing data from a number of related studies to determine the explanatory strength of a particular independent variable. Wilhelm Wundt (VIL-helm Voont) - ANS-Officially established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. Wundt (), who was trained in medicine and philosophy. Wundt is still usually credited for formally initiating the movement to make psychology a science. Introduced trained introspection. William James () - ANS-an American philosopher, physician, and psychologist. Leader of functionalism Sigmund Freud () - ANS-Freud's ideas eventually evolved into a broad theory of personality, and both his theory and his method of treating people with emotional problems became known as psychoanalysis. Trained Introspection - ANS-in which volunteers were taught to carefully observe, analyze, and describe their own sensations, mental images, and emotional reactions. Social-cognitive learning theorists - ANS-combine elements of behaviorism with research on thoughts, values, and intentions. They believe that people learn not only by adapting their behavior to the environment, but also by imitating others and by thinking about the events happening around them. Behaviorists - ANS-analyze the environmental factors that might account for this common problem, such as the pleasure you get from hanging out with your friends instead of hitting the books. They focus on the environmental rewards and punishers that maintain or discourage specific behavior Replicate - ANS-In science, tolerating uncertainty means that researchers must avoid drawing firm conclusions until other researchers have repeated, or replicated, their studies and verified their findings. Independent Variable - ANS-A variable that an experimenter manipulates. Ideally, everything in the experiment situation except the independent variable is held constant, that is, kept the same for all participants. Dependent Variable - ANS-A variable that an experimenter predicts will be affected by the manipulations of the independent variable. P value - ANS-P stands for probability. By convention, Psychologists consider a result to be significant if it would be expected to occur by chance 5 times in 100 repetitions of the study. They would then say that the result is significant at .05 level or p<.05. However if the p value is greater than .05 many researchers would have little confidence in the study's result.