A collection of case-studies that can be used for IB Psychology Paper 1 examination, includes both SAQ and ERQ planning. Psychology concepts are elaborated with organizers that provide details of relevant case studies and critical thinkings. Best resource to go to for exam prep.
Individuals and the Social Identity Theory Tajfel (1947)
group
Social Cognitive Theory Bandura et al (1961)
Formation of stereotypes Hamilton & Gifford (1976)
Steele & Aronson (1995)
Cultural Origins of Cultural dimensions Levine et al
Behaviour &
Cognition Culture and its Influence on Kearins (1981)
behaviour and cognition
Cultural Influences Enculturation Odden & Rochat
on Individual
Behaviour Acculturation & Assimilation Lueck & Wilson (2010)
Plan by potential question
Social Identity Theory: Outline / Explain / Describe
- Based on the assumption that humans are social animals with the need to belonging
- Argues that individual derives multiple social selves corresponding to group membership by
categorising themselves in groups
- 3 main concepts:
● Social categorisation: Based on random allocation of meaningless criteria (minimal group
paradigm), people identify ingroups (groups individual belongs) and out-groups (groups
individual does not belong)
❖ Ingroup heterogeneity (increase perceived variability within the group), outgroup
homogeneity (reduce perceived variability to view outgroup members with
homogeneous stereotypes)
● Social comparison: Boosting self-esteem through continuous comparison between ingroup and
outgroups
❖ Fuelled by positive distinctiveness (the motivation to show the superiority of one’s
ingroup compared to an outgroup) to ensure our social identities is positive enough
● Social identification: internalising ideals of the ingroup and potentially changing one’s
behaviour to be consistent with the ingroup
Tajfel
Aim To investigate minimal group paradigm and intergroup discrimination
Participants 48 boys aged 14-15
Method Field Experiment
, Procedure Participants rated paintings of 2 different painters and were randomly allocated to groups
though being told that groups were based on the preference of artists.
They were asked to award 2 points to 2 other boys, either both from their own group, both from
the other group or one from each.
They were only given the code number and group membership of the other participants.
Findings Boys choose to award more points to ingroup members while given a choice to maximise joint
profit for both groups, which displays ingroup favouritism
They aimed to maximise the difference between groups (category accentuation effect) even if it
leads to potential disadvantageous to their ingroup.
Conclusion The boy’s identification of their ingroup and outgroup despite being randomly allocated
demonstrates a minimal group paradigm.
Tendency to favour in-group shows in-group favouritism.
Maximise point difference demonstrates positive distinctiveness / category accentuation effect
Social Cognitive Theory: Outline / Explain / Describe
- Based on the assumption that humans learn behaviour through observational learning: watching models
and imitating their behaviour
- The effect of the model can be direct and indirect
- Whether a behaviour should be replicated is judged based on whether the model was rewarded or
punished
- Consists of 5 constructs:
● Attention: Observer must pay attention to the model
❖ Level of attention is influenced by attractiveness and authority of the model and the
desirability of the behaviour.
● Retention: Observer must be able to remember the behaviour
● Motivation: Observer must want to replicate the behaviour
❖ Level of motivation is influenced by consistency (the model behaves consistent
across situations), identification with the model (tendency to imitate models who
share similar characteristics), and liking of the model (warm and friendliness)
❖ Outcome expectancies: Observer must understand potential outcome of the behaviour
● Self-efficacy: Observer’s confidence in their ability to successfully perform a behaviour
Bandura et al
Aim To investigate whether adult models’ aggressive behaviour would be imitated by children and
whether children were more likely to imitate same-sex models
Participants 72 children (36 girls and 36 boys), aged 3-6
Procedure Children were divided into groups based on aggression level evaluated by their parents and
teacher. They were allocated to 1 of the 3 groups:
1. Observed an adult model showing aggression physically and verbally towards an
inflatable doll
, 2. Observed an non-aggressive adult model assembling toys peacefully
3. Did not observe an adult model (control group)
They were then brought into a room filled with toys but were told not to play with them in order
to accentuate frustration. Then they were brought to another room with toys and an inflatable
doll. Their behaviour was observed by researchers behind a one-way mirror for 20 minutes.
Findings Children who observed aggressive models had an increased frequency of aggressive behaviour
physically and verbally. Particularly girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression while
boys tend to imitate physical aggression. The imitation was more likely to occur when children
observed same-sex models.
Conclusion Findings support observational learning: learning can indeed be indirect and new behaviours
can be learned by simply observing others
Learning can be indirect through simple observation which supports observational learning.
Children had more identification with same sex models and therefore are more likely to imitate
their behaviour. The adults are older in age and are potentially “authorities” to the children.
Formation of Stereotypes: Outline / Explain / Describe
- Stereotype is a social perception of an individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes
- It is a generalised and fixed way of thinking about a group of people
- Due to human’s limited capacity to process information, existing schemas are used to place people into
categories to simplify the complex social world so people can make assumptions about a group or
person based on limited information.
- Once this social categorization is made, people tend to emphasise similarities to individuals in that
group and exaggerate differences between groups
- Could led to biassed or unfair treatment in the form of prejudice and discrimination
- Argues that illusory correlation (false perception of co-occurrence of two variables when there is none).
This could arise from expectations based on pre-existing beliefs, salience of certain information,
differential weighing of information, etc.
Hamilton & Gifford
Aim To investigate illusory correlations based on the co-occurrence of infrequent events
To investigate illusory correlations based on the co-occurrence of infrequent events
Participants 104 university undergraduates
Method Field Experiment
Procedure Participants read a series of statements describing members of two groups, A and B (minority
group), performing desirable and undesirable behaviours.
- Out of the 28 statements read, there were 2 times as many statements describing A
compared to B, while the ratio of statements of desirable to undesirable behaviours
were the same (18:8 vs. 9:4)
Participants were asked to estimate how many members of each group performed desirable and
undesirable behaviours and rate the groups based on desirability.
Findings Participants overestimated the frequency of Group B (minority group) performing negative
behaviour. Group B was rated less favourably than Group A.
, Conclusion Participants perceived an illusory correlation between minority group membership and
desirability, creating a stereotype that members in Group B have more undesirable behaviour
and are less favourable.
Both minority group membership and undesirable statements were distinctive (less frequent)
therefore more attention is given to infrequent information. This is known as
Distinctiveness-based illusory correlations.
Effect of Stereotype Type: Outline / Explain / Describe
- Stereotype threat occurs under threats of being judged / treated stereotypically which raises anxiety and
fear that their behaviour can potentially confirm and reinforce an existing negative group stereotypes
- Members of the stereotyped group may inadvertently reinforce the stereotype by changing their
behaviour to follow it.
- Stereotype is a form of self-fulfilling prophecy: any positive or negative belief or expectation that an
individual holds causes them to manifest it in their behaviour which confirms the expectation.
Steele & Aronson
Aim To investigate the effect of stereotype threat on the performance of African-American students
Participants 114 male and female, black and white Stanford undergraduates
Method Natural Experiment
Procedure Participants were asked to complete a 30-minutes verbal test that was difficult enough that
participants had to challenge themselves which causes frustration under 1 of 2 conditions:
1. Participants were told the test measures intellectual ability (Diagnostic condition)
2. Participants were told the test does not measure intellectual ability (Non-Diagnostic
condition)
Participants were asked to indicate their race and demographic information before the tests.
Findings White participants performed equally in both conditions. Black participants performed
significantly worse than white participants in the diagnostic condition, but similar with white
participants in the non-diagnostic condition.
Conclusion When Black participants think their race is being noticed, Black participants felt apprehension
over conforming to the existing negative racial stereotype that Black people are less intelligent.
Faced with this possibility, they felt anxious and underperformed in the test.
Cultural Dimensions, Influence of culture on behaviour and / or cognition: Outline / Explain / Describe
- Culture is a dynamic system that is transmitted across generations. They can be expressed explicitly
(surface culture that can be easily seen when distinguishing groups) and implicitly (deep culture that
concerns beliefs, attitudes, and values of a group).
- It allows people to meet the need of survival, pursue well-being and derive meaning of life
- Proposed by Hofstede, cultural dimensions are the common rules and values that regulate interactions
and behaviours of group members. One of them is individualism vs. collectivism, measuring the degree
of interdependence a society maintains among its members.
● Individualistic cultures are described as high IDV, members view their self-image in relation
to the social group being loose.
❖ High complexity (societies moving towards industrialization)
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