Week 1: Sexuality research in the past century and now / Psychosexual development
Bullough, V. L. (1998). Alfred Kinsey and the Kinsey Report: Historical overview and lasting
contributions.
Alfred Kinsey was a pioneering scientist whose work in sex research during the mid-20th
century significantly challenged societal norms and assumptions about sexual behavior.
Despite facing criticism and opposition, particularly from colleagues like Rice who viewed sex
as a moral rather than a scientific issue, Kinsey approached the study of sex with the same
taxonomic rigor he applied to his earlier research on gall wasps. He sought to classify and
describe sexual behaviors objectively, driven by a belief that science could speak for itself
without political or moral bias.
Kinsey's openness about sex, both in his personal life and professional inquiries, led to
controversy. He collected detailed sexual histories from students and other subjects, which
provoked complaints from parents and scrutiny from university officials. This resulted in a
reduced teaching load and more focus on his sex research.
Kinsey's major accomplishments include challenging prevailing assumptions about sexual
activity in the United States. His studies revealed a wide range of sexual behaviors, sparking
public debate and controversy. Kinsey's work was revolutionary for its time, especially his
classification of sexual orientation on a spectrum and his findings on female sexuality, which
significantly influenced the feminist movement and subsequent sex research.
However, Kinsey's research faced criticism for its non-random sampling methods and
perceived biases. Despite these criticisms, his work on female orgasms and other sexual
behaviors brought important issues to light and promoted the scientific study of sex as a
legitimate field. Kinsey was less interested in certain areas, such as group sex or sexually
transmitted diseases, but his overall contributions helped demystify sex and establish it as an
important aspect of human behavior.
Kinsey's legacy includes the establishment of a comprehensive library on sex research at
Indiana University, which remains a crucial resource. His efforts laid the foundation for future
sex researchers, influenced public attitudes toward sex, and challenged the medical and
psychiatric establishments to reassess their views. Despite ongoing criticism, Kinsey's
pioneering work continues to be recognized and celebrated for its enduring impact on the
study of human sexuality.
, Laan, E., Klein, V., Werner, M., Van Lunsen, R. H. W., & Janssen, E. (2021). In pursuit of
pleasure: A biopsychosocial perspective on sexual pleasure and gender.
Historically, Western religious and medical traditions have stigmatized sexual pleasure as
dangerous and destructive. This perspective, rooted in the notion that uncontrolled sexuality
leads to societal chaos, persists in public health approaches focused on adverse outcomes
and risks. These ideas fuel fears that positive sexual education will encourage premature
sexual activity among youth. However, studies show that empowering young people to
consider pleasure leads to more positive sexual experiences. Comprehensive sex education,
even without explicit mention of pleasure, correlates with delayed sexual activity, increased
contraceptive use, and lower pregnancy rates. Countries with abstinence-only or no sex
education fare worse in sexual health outcomes compared to those with comprehensive
programs. Embracing sexual well-being as a public health priority acknowledges the
importance of pleasure, justice, and health in overall well-being.
Numerous studies highlight the health advantages of sexual pleasure, indicating its positive
impact on sexual, mental, and physical health outcomes. Enjoyment of sexual experiences
correlates with enhanced relationship satisfaction and overall life contentment, irrespective
of age or physical condition. Particularly in committed relationships, the quality of sexual
experiences significantly influences relationship longevity beyond the effect of commitment
alone. While sexual pleasure fosters autonomy, self-esteem, and empathy in young women,
its association with health indicators appears stronger in women compared to men.
Interestingly, for older men, frequency of sexual activity correlates with longevity and better
physical health, whereas for women, enjoyment of sexual activity, rather than frequency, is
linked to longevity. These findings suggest that while sexual pleasure contributes to health
outcomes in both genders, its significance may vary based on gender-specific associations
with sexual activity.
Sexual pleasure is not equally accessible to all individuals and is often influenced by gender
dynamics. Heterosexual women commonly report more sexual complaints compared to men,
reflecting a societal context where women's pleasure is often secondary to men's. Traditional
cultural norms may deem women's pleasure as irrelevant or even dangerous, contrasting
with the prioritization of men's pleasure for procreation. Consequently, issues affecting
men's pleasure or procreative sex receive more attention than those impacting women's
pleasure. Moreover, research on sexual pleasure remains limited, especially within
marginalized communities. While some studies explore pleasure among LGBTQ+ populations,
the focus often remains on cisgender, heterosexual, and quantitative research, neglecting the
diverse experiences of transgender and gender-diverse individuals.
Gender differences in experienced sexual pleasure are pronounced, with women often
reporting less positive experiences compared to men. Studies consistently show that men are
more likely to orgasm during sexual activity than women, regardless of sexual orientation.
Heterosexual women especially experience a significant orgasm gap compared to
heterosexual men, with only 65% of women usually or always orgasming during sex with a
male partner, compared to 95% of men. Penile-vaginal intercourse alone is generally
ineffective in inducing orgasm in women, with additional clitoral stimulation significantly
increasing the likelihood of orgasm. Women who have sex with women report higher orgasm
rates, emphasizing the importance of clitoral stimulation. Moreover, women's sexual
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,encounters are often less sexually arousing, pleasurable, and pain-free compared to men's
experiences. Pain during penile-vaginal intercourse, known as dyspareunia, is prevalent
among women, particularly young women, yet many women continue engaging in painful
sex due to societal expectations and partner pressure. Sexual violence and coercion further
exacerbate the gendered differences in sexual experiences, with women being
disproportionately affected by intimate partner violence, non-partner sexual violence, and
rape. Overall, women, particularly heterosexual women, face greater barriers to experiencing
sexual pleasure compared to men, raising questions about the factors contributing to these
disparities.
Studies on childhood genital responses and behaviors indicate that women and men do not
significantly differ in their biological capacity for sexual response. Both genders exhibit
pleasurable responses and behaviors from a young age, including genital self-touch. While
men often report higher frequencies of masturbation and pornography use, methodological
factors may explain these differences. Socio-cultural factors, such as stigma and safety, also
play a role in behavioral differences between women and men in sexual interactions. Overall,
research suggests that women and men have similar capacities for sexual pleasure, and
gender similarities in sexual behavior are increasing over time.
Research suggests that heterosexual women may desire partnered sexual activities less than
men, not due to intrinsic differences, but because available sexual activities offer fewer
opportunities for pleasure. Studies indicate that anticipated pleasure predicts women's
desire for intercourse, and gendered cultural scripts negatively impact their sexual desire.
Women prioritizing their own pleasure report higher desire for sexual activity. In Denmark,
where gender equality is high, gendered scripts still negatively affect women's desire.
Additionally, the coital imperative, which prioritizes penile-vaginal intercourse, limits
women's sexual pleasure, especially when combined with ignorance about clitoral anatomy
and the necessity of sexual arousal. The myth that women should orgasm from intercourse
alone further reduces pleasure opportunities, as modern data emphasize clitoral
stimulation's role in female orgasm. Other factors include genital mutilation, disregard for
the clitoris, slut shaming, media portrayal of the thin-ideal body, and the cultural dilemma of
desire for adolescent girls. Cultural and environmental factors, rather than biological ones,
primarily shape gender differences in sexual expressions. A culturally sensitive perspective on
sexuality acknowledges the significant variability in individual sexual experiences and the
influence of societal roles and power dynamics on sexual pleasure.
To achieve gender equality in sexual pleasure, it is essential to shift from a discourse of
gender differences to one of gender similarities, supported by scientific evidence. Cultural
beliefs in fundamental gender differences shape sexual development and reinforce
disparities. Recognizing sexual pleasure's importance for health, comprehensive sex
education should include the pleasurable aspects of sexuality, not just reproduction and
risks. Promoting "cliteracy" and educating about genital anatomy, pleasure mechanisms, and
reducing heteronormativity and gendered sexual scripts are crucial. Encouraging gender
equality and involving men in supporting egalitarian roles can enhance sexual pleasure for all
genders, fostering a new, inclusive definition of "sex" as a shared pleasurable experience.
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, Cacciatore, R., Korteniemi-Poikela, E., & Kaltiala-Heino, R. (2019). The steps of sexuality—A
developmental, emotion-focused, child-centered model of sexual development and
sexuality education from birth to adulthood.
Sexual development is a lifelong process, not just a journey from the first kiss to intercourse
during adolescence. Human beings are sexual throughout their lives, and children and
adolescents continuously develop in this domain.
Developmental Theories and Sexuality Across the Developmental Years
- Classical psychoanalytical theory, as posited by figures like Freud, recognized
children's sexuality, dividing it into oral, anal, phallic, and early genital phases. In
these stages, pleasure is derived from activities like breastfeeding, control of bodily
functions, and genital sensations. Post these phases, during the latency period,
sexuality supposedly withdraws until puberty.
- Attachment theory suggests that children are born with an innate readiness to form
attachments, which help them survive. These early attachment relationships serve as
prototypes for future social relationships, influencing emotional reactions in young
adulthood and impacting sexual development.
- Erikson's theory describes development through a series of stages, each with a
unique psychosocial crisis to resolve. The early stages (trust vs. mistrust, autonomy
vs. shame, initiative vs. guilt) are crucial for building trust, independence, and
initiative, all relevant for future romantic and erotic relationships. Adolescence,
marked by the identity vs. role confusion stage, focuses on exploring identity options,
including sexuality and gender identity.
- Developmental tasks theory by Havighurst outlines tasks like accepting one’s body,
adopting a gendered social role, achieving emotional independence from parents,
and developing close relationships with peers. These tasks are crucial for success in
subsequent stages and are closely linked to sexuality during adolescence.
Despite early theories on childhood sexuality dating back a century, children were
traditionally viewed as asexual, with any sexual behavior often interpreted as pathological or
indicative of abuse. Recent empirical research, however, has identified a range of normative
sexual behaviors in prepubertal children that reflect healthy development.
- Infants and Toddlers: genital touching and facial expressions indicating stimulation in
infants as young as six months in boys and eight months in girls. Rhythmic genital
stimulation accompanied by expressions of pleasure was seen from the second year
of life. Infant girls beginning masturbation between 3-15 months, ceasing on average
at 5.5 years.
- Preschoolers: children aged 2-5 often engaged in self-stimulation, exhibitionism, and
behaviors related to personal boundaries. Playing doctor, genital touching, and
curiosity about others' bodies. Knowledge about body parts and gender differences
increases, but understanding of adult sexuality, abuse prevention, and pregnancy
remains limited
- Middle Childhood: Sexual behaviors like touching one's genitals, watching others
undress, and curiosity about sex decreased in frequency from preschool years to
middle childhood. Retrospective studies, however, suggest that these behaviors might
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