WEEK 1 - Intro to Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy: study of structure and shape of body and parts
Physiology: study of how body and parts work/function
Levels of anatomy study
- Gross anatomy: large structures, observable
- Microscopic anatomy: small structures, only seen by microscope
Levels of structural organization
1. Chemical level: atoms combine to form molecules
2. Cellular level: cells make up molecules
3. Tissue level: tissue consists of similar cells
4. Organ level: organs made of different types of tissues
5. Organ system: organ systems
6. Organismal level: human
Necessary life functions
- Homeostasis, reproduction, metabolism, heredity, cells
- Maintain boundaries
- Movement (locomotion, movement of substances)
- Responsiveness
- Digestion
- Metabolism (all chemical reactions in body, produce of energy/body structures)
- Excretion
- Reproduction
- Growth
Homeostasis
Stable internal environment. Body communicates w/ neural/hormonal control
systems
- Receptor (responds to changes in environment, stimuli)
- Effector (provides response to stimulus)
Negative feedback
- Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
- Shuts off original stimulus, reduces intensity (thermostat goes up, body temp
goes down)
, Positive feedback
- Increase original stimulus to push variable farther (blood clotting, birth of baby,
release of oxytocin)
Orientation and directional terms
- Superior (cranial/cephalad): toward head of upper part (forehead superior to
nose)
- Inferior (caudal): away from head or lower part of body (navel inferior to
breastbone)
- Anterior (ventral): toward or front of body (breastbone anterior to spine)
- Posterior (dorsal): toward backside of body; behind (heart posterior to
breastbone)
- Medial: toward midline of body; inner side (heart medial to arm)
- Lateral: away from midline; outer side (arms lateral to chest)
- Intermediate: between medial and lateral (armpit intermediate between
breastbone and shoulder)
- Proximal: close to origin of body or point of attachment (elbow proximal to wrist)
- Distal: farther from origin of body or point of attachment (knee distal to thigh)
- Superficial: toward body of surface (skin superficial to skeleton)
- Deep: away from body surface (lungs deep to ribcage)
- Supine: position of body when lying face up
- Prone: position of body when lying face down
Latin directional terms
- Epi-: above
- Hypo-: below
- Lateral: side
,Body cavities
Axial: head, neck, trunk
1. Cranial cavity = brain
2. Vertebral canal = spinal cord within sections of backbone (vertebrae)
3. Thoracic cavity = lungs and heart
- Lungs are lined with membrane parietal pleura & visceral pleura which covers each
lung. Separated by thin film of serous fluid.
- Pleural cavity is the potential space between the membranes.
- Heart surrounded by pericardial membrane. Visceral pericardium covers the surface
and is separated by parietal pericardium.
- Pericardial cavity is the potential space between these membranes.
———— Diaphragm separates thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic activity ————
4. Abdominopelvic cavity = viscera (organs in thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities).
- Has peritoneal membranes. Parietal peritoneum lines wall and visceral peritoneum
covers each organ in the abdominal cavity.
- Peritoneal cavity is the potential space between the membranes.
Abdominopelvic cavity DIVIDED INTO:
- Abdominal cavity = stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys, most small/large
intestines
- Pelvic cavity = bladder and reproductive organs
● appendicular: upper, lower limbs
,Organ systems
Integumentary: skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands
- Protect tissue, regular body temp., sensory receptors, synthesize certain
products
Skeletal & muscular: support and move body parts
- Skeletal = bones, ligaments, cartilage. Provide framework and protective shields
for softer tissues, attachments for muscles, act with muscles.
- Muscular = skeletal muscles are organs for the muscular system. Produces heat,
maintains posture, locomotion
Nervous: spinal cord, brain, nerves, sense organs
- Responds to internal and external change, activates muscles and glands
Endocrine: Hypothalamus of brain, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands;
pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, thymus
- glands secrete hormones for growth, production, and metabolism
Cardiovascular: heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, blood
- Transports materials via blood pumped by heart (oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients, wastes)
- Lymphatic system = lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, fluid
lymph. Transports some tissue back into the bloodstream and carries fatty
substances away from digestive organs. Returns fluids to blood vessels.
- Cells in this system are lymphocytes: defends body against infections in
tissue fluid
Digestive: mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
liver gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine
Respiratory: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
Urinary: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
- Removes waste from blood and maintains body water and electrolyte (salts,
acids, bases) concentrations. By-product of this is urine
Reproductive:
- Male: scrotum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles,
prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, penis, urethra
- Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva
,WEEK 2 - Basic Chemistry
Element
- Bottom #: atomic number (protons)
- Top #: atomic pass/weight (protons+neutrons)
Element Definitions
- Chemical bonds: atoms interact/combine with atoms or other elements by
forming attractions. Electrons participate in chemical bonds between atoms
- Atoms with full valence electrons do not bond (noble gasses)
- Isotope: atoms of same element with varying numbers of neutrons
- Ion: loss or gain or electrons
- Cation: positive charge (loss of electrons)
- Anion: negative charge (gain of electrons)
Bonds
Ionic bond: electrons are transferred from one atom to another
Covalent bond: electrons are shared in pairs (single=one pair, double=two pairs)
- Nonpolar: electrons shared equally between atoms of molecule
- Polar: electrons not shared equally between atoms of molecule
Hydrogen bond: weak chemical bond
- Hydrogen attracted to negative portion of polar molecule
- Responsible for surface tension of water
- Forms intramolecular bonds like in protein structure
Chemical Reactions
- Synthesis reaction: atoms/molecules combine (A+B -> AB)
- Decomposition reaction: molecule is broken down (AB -> A+B)
- Exchange reaction: bonds are made and broken (AB+C -> AC+B & AB+CD ->
AD+CB)
- Dehydration synthesis: monomers join to form polymers through removal of
water molecules
- Hydrolysis: polymers broken down into monomers through addition of water
molecules
pH
Measures relative concentration of hydrogen ions
- pH 7 = neutral
- pH -7 = acidic
- pH +7 = basic
, - Buffers: chemicals that regulate pH change
Inorganic Compounds
Water: high heat capacity, polar/solvent properties, chemical reactivity, cushioning
Salt: has cations other than H+ and anions other than OH-
- Salt is electrolytes: ions that conduct electricity
- Easily break apart into ions in water
- Sodium and potassium ions important for nerve impulses
Acids: releases hydrogen ions (H+) in water
- Strong acids ionize completely and liberate protons
- Weak acids ionize incompletely
Bases: releases hydroxyl ions (OH-) in water
- Proton acceptors
- Strong bases seek hydrogen ions
Organic Compounds (Macromolecules)
Carbohydrates: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen ~ sugars and starches
- Monosaccharides: simple sugars (3-7 carbon atoms)
- EX. glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose
- Disaccharides: two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis
- EX. sucrose, lactose, maltose
- Polysaccharides: long-branching chains of linked simple sugars
- EX. starch, glycogen
Lipids: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen ~ fats
- Neutral fats (triglycerides): in fat deposits, source of stored energy. Composed
of 3 fatty acids and one glycerol molecule
- Saturated fatty acids: single covalent bonds, exists as solid at room
temperature ~ animal fats
- Unsaturated fats: one or more double covalent bonds, exist as liquid oils
at room temperature ~ olive oil, healthy fats
- Trans fats: oils that are solidified by adding hydrogen atoms at double bond
sites (increases risk of heart disease)
- Omega: 3 fatty acids found in cold-water fish and plants ~ flax, pumpkin, chia
seeds, walnuts, soy foods (decreases risk of heart disease)
- Phospholipids: two fatty acids instead of 3
- Steroid: four connected rings of carbon atoms
,Proteins: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, maybe sulfur ~ enzymes, hormones,
antibodies
- Built from amino acids, constructs materials for body tissues
- Amino acid structure: has amine group (NH2) & acid group (COOH)
- Structural levels: primary structure, secondary structure (alpha helix,
beta-pleated sheet), tertiary structure, quaternary structure
- Primary structure: sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chain
- Secondary structure: sequence folds in helix shape or paper fan shape
- Tertiary structure: overall 3D shape of polypeptide/protein
- Quaternary structure: proteins consist of 2+ polypeptide chains
- Fibrous (structural) proteins: in body structures and body tissues, binds structures
together. Exists in all structural levels.
- Globular (functional) proteins: antibodies, hormones, enzymes. Exists in at least
tertiary structure.
- Enzymes: biological catalysts that increase rate of chemical reactions (hydrolase,
oxidase)
Nucleic acids: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus ~ makes genes
- DNA: stores information in molecular code by sequence of 4 nitrogenous bases
- RNA: single-stranded polynucleotide chains that uses genetic info to guide
production of protein molecules
- Genes: made of nucleic acid DNA have info for amino acid sequences
,WEEK 3 - Membranes, Cells, Tissues
Animal Cell Organelles
- Nucleus: contains copy of DNA (genetic info)
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: site of protein production from ribosomes
- Smooth ER: site of lipid production. No ribosomes
- Golgi Apparatus: site of protein folding, packaging, and delivery
- Vesicles: membrane sacs to deliver proteins
- Mitochondria: site of ATP production during cellular respiration
- Lysosome: sacs filled with enzymes to break down waste
- Peroxisomes: break down H2O2
- Plasma membrane: phospholipid bilayer, allows materials in and out of cell
- Cilia: small hairs of cell membrane that move particles
- Flagella: protein tail that whips to move cell
Passive Mechanisms
- Diffusion: molecules move from higher concentration to lower
- Facilitated diffusion: substances too large (ex. glucose) needs help of a
membrane protein to move down concentration
- Osmosis: movement of water across permeable membrane
- Filtration: forces molecules to move through membranes by pressure
Other Mechanisms
- Active transport: molecules move from low to high concentration (ATP required)
- Endocytosis: molecules too large to enter cell by diffusion or active is conveyed
in vesicle that forms a portion of the cell membrane
- Exocytosis: reverse process
- Phagocytosis: cell eating that takes in solids. Projects outward and surrounds
particle, detaching from cell surface and forms a vesicle containing the particle
- Pinocytosis: cell drinking
- Hydrolysis: breaks down carbs, lipids, proteins, and spits out water molecule
Body Tissues
Four types: Epithelium, connective, nervous, muscle
Epithelium: found in body coverings, linings, glandular tissue
- Provides protection, absorption, filtration, secretion
- Cells fit closely together, tissue layer always has one free surface
- Lower surface bound by basement membrane
- Avascular (no blood supply)
, - Regenerates easily
- Apical surface: exposed to outside/internally to open space
- Basement membrane: non living layer underside of epithelial and is anchored to
connective tissue
# of cell layers: simple=one layer | stratified=more than one layer
shape of cells: squamous=flattened, cuboidal=cube shaped, columnar=column
- Simple squamous: single layer flat cells, forms membranes, lines body cavities,
lungs, capillaries
- Simple cuboidal: single layer cube cells, in glands and ducts
- Simple columnar: tall cells, goblet cells (produce mucus), lines digestive tract
- Psuedostratified: single layer, could look double cell layer, sometimes ciliated
like in respiratory tract, can function in absorption and secretion
- Stratified squamous: found as protective covering in skin, mouth, esophagus
- Transitional epithelium: lines organs in urinary system. Responds to tension
Epithelial membranes: thin sheet structures that cover body surfaces and line
cavities
- Serous: doesn’t open to outside of the body. inner linings of thorax and
abdomen. Covers organs in the cavities. Simple squamous epithelium and thin
layer of areolar connective.
- Mucous: lines cavities and tubes open to outside the body like oral, nasal, tubes
of digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive. Goblet cells secrete mucus.
- Cutaneous: skin
- Synovial: lines joints. Made of connective
Connective: found everywhere in body
- Binds body tissues together, supports body, protects
- Some tissue type are vascularized (good blood supply) or avascular (poor supply)
- Extracellular matrix: non-living material that surrounds living cells. Two elements:
- Ground substance: water along adhesion proteins and polysaccharide
molecules
- Fibers: produced by cells (collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers)
- Collagen: withstand pulling forces
- Elastic: stretch and return to original shapes
- Reticular: thin collagen fibers
- Bone (osseous tissue): bone cells, hard matrix, lots of collagen fibers
- Cartilage: supports, frameworks, attachments, protects underlying tissues
