other terms for "unknown" etiology of disease - idiopathic and cryptogenic
define iatrogenic - etiology of disease as a result of surgical/medical intervention
define incidence of epidemiology - the new number of cases in a given population in a
specific time period
define prevalence of epidemiology - number of cases, both old and new, during a
specific time period
what are the four common mechanisms of cell injury and death - 1. ATP Depletion
2. Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals
3. intracellular calcium and loss of calcium state
4. defects in membrane permeability
what is the most common stressor of disease - ATP deletion
what are the two phases of ATP production? - 1. Anaerobic (glycolysis)
2. Aerobic (oxidative phosphorylation)
how many ATP does glycolysis yield? - 2
How many ATP does oxidative phosphorylation yield? - 36
in ATP depletion, what are the four critical points where ATP production may be
impaired? - 1. Hypoxia
2.
ischemia - reduced blood flow
Explain hypoxia in terms of ATP depletion - obstruction --> ischemia --> decreased ATP
production --> a) sodium/potassium ion pump fails, and b) increased anaerobic
glycolysis
,explain what happens when the Na-K-ATPase pump fails due to decreased ATP
production - normally, most sodium ions are outside the cell and most potassium ions
are inside the cell
when the pump fails, sodium freely enters the cell with H2O and calcium, and potassium
freely exits the cell
as a result, the cell swells and and protein synthesis stops
where does protein synthesis occur in a cell? - Rough ER with ribosomes on the surface
explain what happens where there is an increase in glycolysis due to decreased ATP
production - glycogen is decreased, lactate is increased, intracellular pH is decreased
decreased pH results in pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis
define free radicals - unstable compounds with an unpaired electron
why are free radicals bad? - they bind to the phospholipid bilayer of a cell and drill holes
in its membrane
what are reactive oxygen species? - highly reactive forms of oxygen typically from the
mitochondria
why are antioxidants important - protect cells from free radicals and ROS
are antioxidants increased or decreased in oxidative stress - decreased :(
what are three diseases linked to oxygen-derived free radicals? - 1. Atherosclerosis
2. Cancer
3. Diabetes
define oxidative stress - Injury induced by free-radicals and ROS
two endogenous accumulations - 1. Lipids
2. Bilirubin
define reperfusion injury - when blood flow is restored to ischemic tissues, additional
damage can occur resulting in cell death
, explain oxidative stress as it relates to reperfusion injury - reoxygenation generates
ROS and nitrogen species, which damages membrane proteins and phospholipids
what four ROS are generated in oxidative stress? - 1. Hydroxyl radical
2. superoxide radical ion
3. nitric oxide-derived peroxynitrite
4. hydrogen peroxide
what happens when nitrogen-based free radicals are formed in reperfusion injury? -
further damage to the cell membrane occurs and calcium overloads the mitochondria
explain bilirubin - a pigment that is released when RBC break down --> pigment is
released into the bloodstream as unconjugated bilirubin, which cannot be excreted into
the urine --> taken up by the liver cells --> binds to glucuronic acid --> becomes
conjugated bilirubin, which can be excreted in the urine
two ways bilirubin leaves the liver cells - 1. diffusion once bilirubin concentration is high
2. some bilirubin becomes bile --> exits liver cell through hepatic duct/common bile duct,
then into the duodenum
three issues with hyperbilirubinemia - 1. hemolytic jaundice
2. hepatocellular jaundice
3. obstructive jaundice
explain hemolytic jaundice - excessive amounts of hemoglobin is broken down, resulting
in too much bilirubin in the bloodstream that cannot be delivered to the liver cells
signs of hemolytic jaundice - yellow discoloration of the skin and connective tissue
explain hepatocellular jaundice - normal amount of bilirubin, however, liver cells do not
function at either a) uptake, b) conjugation, or c) excretion
explain obstructive jaundice - hepatic/common bile duct is obstructed resulting in
conjugated bilirubin accumulating in the liver cell, resulting in more bilirubin diffusing into
the bloodstream than normal
pyknosis - clumping of the nucleus
kayrorrhexis - fragmentation of nuclear material
karyolysis - dissolution of nucleus
define autophagy - type 2 programmed cell death of "Eating of self"
list five types of necrosis - 1. liquefactive
2. coagulative
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