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INTERNATIONAL COURTS AND TRIBUNALS QUESTIONS WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
INTERNATIONAL COURTS AND TRIBUNALS QUESTIONS WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
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INTERNATIONAL COURTS ANDTRIBUNALS QUESTIONS WITH
COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
T1t-tIntroductionttotICLt-tans--1.tVerytyoungtconcept
2.tBasicallytatstoryt
3.tHistorytoftICLt
-tFirstly,tWWI
-
tSecondly,tWWII: tThetreactiontoftthetinternationaltcommunitytaftertWorldtWartII:tThetLawtan
dtthetTrials
-tThirdlytthetpost-wartchangesttotthetlegaltlandscapetpost,tastint1946-
47tistquitetatdrastictmovement.
-tLastly:tthetroletoftnationaltjurisdictions
T1t-tThetreactiontoftthetinternationaltcommunitytaftertWWI:tthetPoliticst-tans--1.t1914-
1918:tWWIt
2.t24tMayt1915:tjointtdeclarationtoftthetgovernmentstoftGreattBritain,tFrancetandtRussiatdes
cribingtthetTurkishtgenocidetoftArmenianstast'crimestagainstthumanitytandtcivilization'.tThet
Alliestcondemnedt'thettolerancetandtoftent[...]tthetsupporttoftthetOttomantauthorities'tintthetm
assacrest
-tFirsttrecordedtappearancetoftthetphraset'crimestagainstthumanity'.
-
tEndtoftWWItwastverytpoliticaltreactiontoftthetpartiestinvolved,tthustthetphrasetcrimestagainst
thumanitytwastatpliticaltstatementtnottlegal
-tArmeniantgenocidetwastthetfirsttonetdefinedtastsuch.
3.t18tJanuaryt1919:tParistConference:tappointmenttoftatCommissiontontthetResponsibilityto
ftthetAuthorstoftthetWartandtthetEnforcementtoftPenaltiest
-tTotstudytthetoriginstoft-tandtculpabilitytfort-
tthetconflict,tthetoffencestagainsttthetlawstandtcustomstoftwar,tandtthetconstitutiontoftattribun
alttottrytthetaccused.t
4.tThetCommissiontconcludedtthat,tnotwithstandingttheset'culpabletacts'tandtthist'high-
handedtoutraget[...]tcommittedtupontinternationaltengagements,tdeliberately,tandtfortatpurp
osetwhichtcannottjustifytthetconducttoftthosetwhotweretresponsible',tittwast'oftopiniontthattnot
criminaltchargetcantbetmadetagainsttthetresponsibletauthoritiestandtindividuals'.t
-tThustittwastatcrimetbuttcannottbetlinkedttotatresponsibletperson.t
5.tIttstilltdeclaredttotbet'desirabletthat,tfortthetfuture,tpenaltsanctionstshouldtbetprovidedtfortsu
chtgravetoutragestagainsttthetelementarytprinciplestoftinternationaltlaw'.t
,Source:t'CommissiontontthetResponsibilitytoftthetAuthorstoftthetWartandtontEnforcementtoft
Penalties't(1920)t14tAJILt118]
T1t-
tAftertWWI:tExamplestofthowtthetGermantKaisertwasttriedtfortcrimestwithintthettreatytoftVers
aillest-tans--
1.tArticlet227toftthetTreatytoftVersaillestcalledtfortthettrialtbytantinternationaltmilitaryttribunalto
ftthetKaisert-tthetSupremetGermantCommandert-tfortlaunchingtantaggressivetwar:t
-'ThetAlliedtandtAssociatedtPowerstpubliclytarraigntWilliamtIItoftHohenzollernt,tformerlytGer
mantEmperor,tfortatsupremetoffencetagainsttinternationaltmoralitytandtthetsanctitytofttreatie
st(...)'.t
2.tArticlet231toftthetVersaillestTreatyt('war-guilt'tclause):t
-
tresponsibilitytoftGermanytandtoftitstalliestfortthetwagingtoftthetaggressivetwar,tthustimplyingt
thattthetcontractingtpartiesthadtactuallytagreedtontthetqualificationtoftwartastantillegaltact.t
3.tArticlest232tandtfollowingtoftthetVersaillestTreaty:tGermany'stobligationttotrepairtthetlosse
standtdamagestcausedttotthetAlliedtPowers.t
4.ThetKaisertwasthowevertneverttried,tThetNetherlandsthavingtgrantedthimtasylumtbasedto
nthiststatustastHeadtoftState.
T1t-tAftertWWI:tThetinter-wartperiodtandtthetLeaguetoftNationt-tans--
1.tArticlet10toftthetLeague'stCovenantt:tthetMembertStatestoftthetLeaguetundertookt'totrespe
cttandtpreservetastagainsttexternaltaggressiontthetterritorialtintegritytandtexistingtpoliticaltin
dependencetoftalltMemberstoftthetLeague'.t
-
tIttalsotstatedtthatt'[i]ntcasetoftanytsuchtaggressiontortintcasetoftanytthreattortdangertoftsuchta
ggressiontthetCounciltshalltadvisetupontthetmeanstbytwhichtthistobligationtshalltbetfulfilled'.t
2.tArticlet11toftthetLeague'stCovenant:tthetCounciltoftthetLeaguethadtthetpowerttotinterveneti
ntcasestoftwar,tthreattoftwar,tortrupturetoftthetfriendlytrelationstbetweentstates.tHowever,tforti
tttotintervene,tbothtcontestanttstatestweretgiventthetrightttotbetpresenttandtvotetontthetCounc
il,twhichthadttotbetunanimoustintitstdecisions.t
-tDuettotthistunanimitytittcausedtfortthetproceduraltrulesttotbetinherentlytdisabled
3.tObjectivetoftthetLeaguetwasttotpreventtwartfromthappeningtandtmaintaintpeace.t
-tLeaguetoftnationstoftcoursetfailedtmiserably
T1t-tThetreactiontoftthetinternationaltcommunitytaftertWorldtWartII:tThetLawtandtthetTrialst-
tans--1.tBritishtPrimetMinistertWinstontChurchill,t24tAugustt1941,tBBCtlivetbroadcast:
-
t'Thetaggressort...tretaliatestbytthetmosttfrightfultcruelties.tAsthistArmiestadvance,twholetdist
rictstaretbeingtexterminated.tScorestoftthousandst-tliterallytscorestoftthousandst-
toftexecutionstintcoldtbloodtaretbeingtperpetratedtbytthetGermantPolice-
troopstupontthetRussiantpatriotstwhotdefendttheirtnativetsoil.tSincetthetMongoltinvasionstoft
EuropetintthetSixteenthtCentury,ttherethastnevertbeentmethodical,tmercilesstbutcherytontsu
chtatscale,tortapproachingtsuchtatscale.tAndtthististbuttthetbeginning.tFaminetandtpestilencet
havetyetttotfollowtintthetbloodytrutstoftHitler'sttanks.tWetaretintthetpresencetoftatcrimetwithoutt
atname.'
,--
>tProftfindstittverytinteresting,tittistsorttoftsumstuptthetlegaltdilemmatintthistsituation.tHeretChu
rchilltsaidtwetaretintthetpresencetoftatcrimetwithouttatname,tundoubtlytcriminaltbuttnotnametin
tthetlawttotqualifytthistcrime.tSothowttotqualifytandtpunishtthesetlaws?t
-
tMaintproblemtwithtNurembergtcompletleytignoredtthetprincipletoftlegalitytasttheytchargedtin
dividualstwithtnewtcrimes.t
-tThereforetWWIItindeedtchangedtthetentiretconcepttoftconflict.
T1t-tWWItvs.tWWIIt-tans--
1.tWWI:tordinarytarmiestwithtnonttrainedtcivilians,tstilltatrocititestandthorribleteventstbuttdiffe
rent.t
2.tWWII:twastverytdifferent,tcivilianstweretnottcasualties,tortcollateraltdamage,tbutttheytweret
specificallyttargetedtandtexterminated.t
-
tAtwartthattcompletelytchangedtthetconflicttoftcustoms,talltthetnormstthattexistedtofthumanita
riantlawtweretcompletelytbreachedtandtviolated.
T1t-tNurembergtchartert-tans--
1.tThetNurembergtChartertwastannexedttotthetLondontAgreementt(8tAugustt1945)t'bytthetG
overnmenttoftthetUnitedtStatestoftAmerica,tthetProvisionaltGovernmenttoftthetFrenchtRepu
blic,tthetGovernmenttoftthetUnitedtKingdomtoftGreattBritaintandtNortherntIrelandtandtthetGo
vernmenttoftthetUniontoftSoviettSocialisttRepublics,ttheretshalltbetestablishedtantInternation
altMilitarytTribunalt(hereinaftertcalledt"thetTribunal'')tfortthetjusttandtpromptttrialtandtpunishm
enttoftthetmajortwartcriminalstoftthetEuropeantAxis.'
2.tThetchartertwastdraftedttottrytthosetresponsibletfortthetWWII.t
3.tEspeciallytChurchilltwastatbigtfantoftprosecutingtthemtintthetwartlaw,tandtexecutingtthem.t
Probablyttheretwouldthavetbeentlesstcriticismtastthistwastthetcurrenttlaw
4.tThetAmericanstwantedtattrial,ttheytdidtnottwantttotrepeattthetmistakestoftthetWWI,ttheytrea
llytwantedttottrytthosetresponsibletoftthosetfortthetWWII.t
5.tThetcompositiontoftthettribunaltwastcriticisedtasttheythadtcolonisingtpowerstontthetjudgest
andtprosecutorstbench.t
-tSuchtastthetpresencetoftUSSRtandtUK.t
-
tFrancetoftentescapestcriticism,tduringtthetWWIItwastoccupiedtandtitstofficialtVichytgovernm
enttactivelytcollaboratedtwithtthetNazis.tThetillegaltgovernmenttleadtbytdetGaulletintthetUKta
ndtdetGaulletbasicallytchangedtthetcoursetandtcriticismttowardstFrance.tFrancethadtatbizarr
etpositiontduringtthisttime.
T1t-
tThetjurisdictiontoftthetNurembergtTribunal:tInternationaltcrimest(theytcametuptwitht3tdiffere
ntttypestoftcrimes)t&tthetcriticismtdevelopedtagainsttitt-tans--
Articlet6:tJurisdictiont&tGeneraltprinciples
1.t(A)tCRIMEStAGAINSTtPEACE:t
-tMoretoftentthantnottwarthastbeen/
istantincentivetelementtintthetcommissiontoftinternationaltcrimes,tincludingtgenocide:t'Throu
, ghouttrecordedthumanthistory,twarthastbeentthetpredominanttcausetortpretexttfortmassacre
stoftnational,tethnic,tracialtortreligioustgroups'.t[ReviewtoftFurthertDevelopmentstintFieldstwit
htwhichtthetSub-
tCommissionthastbeentConcerned, tRevisedtandtupdatedtreporttontthetquestiontoftthetpreve
ntiontandtpunishmenttoftthetcrimetoftgenocidetpreparedtbytMr.tB.tWhitaker,tUnitedtNationstE
conomictandtSocialtCouncil,tCommissiontontHumantRights,tSub-
tCommissiontontPreventiontoftDiscriminationtandtProtectiontoftMinorities,tThirty-
eighthtsession,tE/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/6,t2tJulyt1985,tpara.t20]
-
tCriticismtastthetCharter tcreatedtatnewtconcepttastbeforettheretweretnotcrimestagainstthuma
nity.tTribunaltdismissedtthistsincetduettotthetKellogtBrianttpacttcrimestagainstpeacetweretints
ometformtmentionedtbefore.t
2.t(B)tWARtCRIMES:t
-tNottnecessarilytbreachingtthetprincipletoftlegality,tleasttcontroversialtcategory.t
3.t(C)tCRIMEStAGAINSTtHUMANITY:t
-
tHeavilytcriticisedtthattthettribunaltalsotbreachedtthetprincipletoftlegalitytandtcametuptwithtne
wtcrimestandtthattthereforetpeopletcouldtnottbettriedtbasedtontthistlaws.t
--
>tProftfindstthistcriticismttiring,talltthetactstlistedtheretweretalreadytillegaltintthetmajoritytoftthet
legaltsystems,toftcoursetundertthetNazitlawstthistwastnotissue,tbuttittdoestnottmeantthattthes
etlawstweretnottinherentlytlegal.tTheytcoinedtandtcreatedtthistcategory.tCrimestagainstthum
anitytpunishestbehaviourtthattwastalreadytcriminal,tsotnecessarilytthetexterminationtoftmillio
nstoftpeopletwouldtalsotqualifytastlegal.t
--
>tWhenttheytweretcreatedttheytweretconsideredtastaccessorytcrimes,ttheythadttotbetconnec
tedttotanytcrimetwith
T1t-tHierarchytintarticlet6toftthetNurembergttrialt-tans---->tProftlikestthisthierarchy!
1.tNowtittistclaimedtthatttheretistnothierarchyt
2.tAttNurembergttheretwastathierarchy,tfirsttpeace,tthentwar,tthentagainstthumanity,tthististpr
esenttintarticlet6.t
3.tWartprovidestthetadequatetatmospheretoftviolencetintwhichtgroupstcantbetidentifiedtandte
xterminated.tAlltgenocidestallttooktplacetduringtwars,tyoutcanthavetonetwithouttittthough,tasti
ttofferstthetadequatetincentive.t
4.tIntthattsensetthetalliestweretcorrect,thoweverttheytweretincorrecttsincetthetcrimestagainstt
humanitytandtgenocidetstartedtbeforetthetWWII,tthetwaystdealstwithtthis.t
5.tHolocausttwastnottthetfocustoftthettrial,tverytfewtwitnessestandtonlyt3tweretactuallytJewish
.
T1t-tThetTokyotTrialst-tans--
1.t19tJanuaryt1946:tChartertoftthetInternationaltMilitarytTribunaltfortthetFartEastt(IMTFE)t
2.tArt.t1toftthetIMTFEtCharter:t'ThetInternationaltMilitarytTribunaltfortthetFartEasttistherebytes
tablishedtfortthetjusttandtpromptttrialtandtpunishmenttoftthetmajortwartcriminalstintthetFartEa
st.tThetpermanenttseattoftthetTribunaltistintTokyo.'t
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