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INTERNATIONAL COURTS AND TRIBUNALS QUESTIONS WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
INTERNATIONAL COURTS AND TRIBUNALS QUESTIONS WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
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INTERNATIONAL COURTS ANDTRIBUNALS QUESTIONS WITH
COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
T1a-aIntroductionatoaICLa-aans--1.aVeryayoungaconcept
2.aBasicallyaaastorya
3.aHistoryaofaICLa
-aFirstly,aWWI
-
aSecondly,aWWII: aTheareactionaofatheainternationalacommunityaafteraWorldaWaraII:aTheaLa
waandatheaTrials
-aThirdlyatheapost-warachangesatoathealegalalandscapeapost,aasaina1946-
47aisaquiteaaadrasticamovement.
-aLastly:athearoleaofanationalajurisdictions
T1a-aTheareactionaofatheainternationalacommunityaafteraWWI:atheaPoliticsa-aans--1.a1914-
1918:aWWIa
2.a24aMaya1915:ajointadeclarationaofatheagovernmentsaofaGreataBritain,aFranceaandaRussiaa
describingatheaTurkishagenocideaofaArmeniansaasa'crimesaagainstahumanityaandacivilizatio
n'.aTheaAlliesacondemneda'theatoleranceaandaoftena[...]atheasupportaofatheaOttomanaauthoriti
es'ainatheamassacresa
-aFirstarecordedaappearanceaofatheaphrasea'crimesaagainstahumanity'.
-
aEndaofaWWIawasaveryapoliticalareactionaofatheapartiesainvolved,athusatheaphraseacrimesaag
ainstahumanityawasaaapliticalastatementanotalegal
-aArmenianagenocideawasatheafirstaoneadefinedaasasuch.
3.a18aJanuarya1919:aParisaConference:aappointmentaofaaaCommissionaonatheaResponsibili
tyaofatheaAuthorsaofatheaWaraandatheaEnforcementaofaPenaltiesa
-aToastudyatheaoriginsaofa-aandaculpabilityafora-
atheaconflict,atheaoffencesaagainstathealawsaandacustomsaofawar,aandatheaconstitutionaofaaatr
ibunalatoatryatheaaccused.a
4.aTheaCommissionaconcludedathat,anotwithstandingathesea'culpableaacts'aandathisa'high-
handedaoutragea[...]acommittedauponainternationalaengagements,adeliberately,aandaforaaap
urposeawhichacannotajustifyatheaconductaofathoseawhoawerearesponsible',aitawasa'ofaopiniona
thatanoacriminalachargeacanabeamadeaagainstathearesponsibleaauthoritiesaandaindividuals'.a
-aThusaitawasaaacrimeabutacannotabealinkedatoaaaresponsibleaperson.a
5.aItastilladeclaredatoabea'desirableathat,aforatheafuture,apenalasanctionsashouldabeaprovidedaf
orasuchagraveaoutragesaagainstatheaelementaryaprinciplesaofainternationalalaw'.a
,Source:a'CommissionaonatheaResponsibilityaofatheaAuthorsaofatheaWaraandaonaEnforcemen
taofaPenalties'a(1920)a14aAJILa118]
T1a-
aAfteraWWI:aExamplesaofahowatheaGermanaKaiserawasatriedaforacrimesawithinatheatreatyaofa
Versaillesa-aans--
1.aArticlea227aofatheaTreatyaofaVersaillesacalledaforatheatrialabyaanainternationalamilitaryatribu
nalaofatheaKaisera-atheaSupremeaGermanaCommandera-aforalaunchingaanaaggressiveawar:a
-'TheaAlliedaandaAssociatedaPowersapubliclyaarraignaWilliamaIIaofaHohenzollerna,aformerlya
GermanaEmperor,aforaaasupremeaoffenceaagainstainternationalamoralityaandatheasanctityaof
atreatiesa(...)'.a
2.aArticlea231aofatheaVersaillesaTreatya('war-guilt'aclause):a
-
aresponsibilityaofaGermanyaandaofaitsaalliesaforatheawagingaofatheaaggressiveawar,athusaimpl
yingathatatheacontractingapartiesahadaactuallyaagreedaonatheaqualificationaofawaraasaanailleg
alaact.a
3.aArticlesa232aandafollowingaofatheaVersaillesaTreaty:aGermany'saobligationatoarepairathealo
ssesaandadamagesacausedatoatheaAlliedaPowers.a
4.TheaKaiserawasahoweveraneveratried,aTheaNetherlandsahavingagrantedahimaasylumabase
daonahisastatusaasaHeadaofaState.
T1a-aAfteraWWI:aTheainter-waraperiodaandatheaLeagueaofaNationa-aans--
1.aArticlea10aofatheaLeague'saCovenanta:atheaMemberaStatesaofatheaLeagueaundertooka'toar
espectaandapreserveaasaagainstaexternalaaggressionatheaterritorialaintegrityaandaexistingap
oliticalaindependenceaofaallaMembersaofatheaLeague'.a
-
aItaalsoastatedathata'[i]nacaseaofaanyasuchaaggressionaorainacaseaofaanyathreataoradangeraofas
uchaaggressionatheaCouncilashallaadviseauponatheameansabyawhichathisaobligationashallabea
fulfilled'.a
2.aArticlea11aofatheaLeague'saCovenant:atheaCouncilaofatheaLeagueahadatheapoweratoainterv
eneainacasesaofawar,athreataofawar,aoraruptureaofatheafriendlyarelationsabetweenastates.aHow
ever,aforaitatoaintervene,abothacontestantastatesawereagivenathearightatoabeapresentaandavote
aonatheaCouncil,awhichahadatoabeaunanimousainaitsadecisions.a
-aDueatoathisaunanimityaitacausedaforatheaproceduralarulesatoabeainherentlyadisabled
3.aObjectiveaofatheaLeagueawasatoapreventawarafromahappeningaandamaintainapeace.a
-aLeagueaofanationsaofacourseafailedamiserably
T1a-
aTheareactionaofatheainternationalacommunity aafteraWorldaWaraII:aTheaLawaandatheaTrialsa-
aans--1.aBritishaPrimeaMinisteraWinstonaChurchill,a24aAugusta1941,aBBCaliveabroadcast:
-
a'Theaaggressora...aretaliatesabyatheamostafrightfulacruelties.aAsahisaArmiesaadvance,awholea
districtsaareabeingaexterminated.aScoresaofathousandsa-aliterallyascoresaofathousandsa-
aofaexecutionsainacoldabloodaareabeingaperpetratedabyatheaGermanaPolice-
troopsauponatheaRussianapatriotsawhoadefendatheiranativeasoil.aSinceatheaMongolainvasions
aofaEuropeainatheaSixteenthaCentury,athereahasaneverabeenamethodical,amercilessabutcher
,yaonasuchaaascale,aoraapproachingasuchaaascale.aAndathisaisabutatheabeginning.aFamineaan
dapestilenceahaveayetatoafollowainatheabloodyarutsaofaHitler'satanks.aWeaareainatheapresencea
ofaaacrimeawithoutaaaname.'
--
>aProfafindsaitaveryainteresting,aitaisasortaofasumsaupathealegaladilemmaainathisasituation.aHer
eaChurchillasaidaweaareainatheapresenceaofaaacrimeawithoutaaaname,aundoubtlyacriminalabuta
noanameainathealawatoaqualifyathisacrime.aSoahowatoaqualifyaandapunishathesealaws?a
-
aMainaproblemawithaNurembergacompletleyaignoredatheaprincipleaofalegalityaasatheyacharge
daindividualsawithanewacrimes.a
-aThereforeaWWIIaindeedachangedatheaentireaconceptaofaconflict.
T1a-aWWIavs.aWWIIa-aans--
1.aWWI:aordinaryaarmiesawithanonatrainedacivilians,astillaatrocititesaandahorribleaeventsabuta
different.a
2.aWWII:awasaveryadifferent,aciviliansawereanotacasualties,aoracollateraladamage,abutatheyaw
ereaspecificallyatargetedaandaexterminated.a
-
aAawarathatacompletelyachangedatheaconflictaofacustoms,aallatheanormsathataexistedaofahuma
nitarianalawawereacompletelyabreachedaandaviolated.
T1a-aNurembergachartera-aans--
1.aTheaNurembergaCharterawasaannexedatoatheaLondonaAgreementa(8aAugusta1945)a'byath
eaGovernmentaofatheaUnitedaStatesaofaAmerica,atheaProvisionalaGovernmentaofatheaFrench
aRepublic,atheaGovernmentaofatheaUnitedaKingdomaofaGreataBritainaandaNorthernaIrelandaa
ndatheaGovernmentaofatheaUnionaofaSovietaSocialistaRepublics,athereashallabeaestablisheda
anaInternationalaMilitaryaTribunala(hereinafteracalleda"theaTribunal'')aforatheajustaandaprompt
atrialaandapunishment aofatheamajorawaracriminalsaofatheaEuropeanaAxis.'
2.aTheacharterawasadraftedatoatryathosearesponsibleaforatheaWWII.a
3.aEspeciallyaChurchillawasaaabigafanaofaprosecutingathemainatheawaralaw,aandaexecutingath
em.aProbablyathereawouldahaveabeenalessacriticismaasathisawasatheacurrentalaw
4.aTheaAmericansawantedaaatrial,atheyadidanotawantatoarepeatatheamistakesaofatheaWWI,athe
yareallyawantedatoatryathosearesponsibleaofathoseaforatheaWWII.a
5.aTheacompositionaofatheatribunalawasacriticisedaasatheyahadacolonisingapowersaonatheajud
gesaandaprosecutorsabench.a
-aSuchaasatheapresenceaofaUSSRaandaUK.a
-
aFranceaoftenaescapesacriticism,aduringatheaWWIIawasaoccupiedaandaitsaofficialaVichyagove
rnmentaactivelyacollaboratedawithatheaNazis.aTheaillegalagovernmentaleadabyadeaGaulleainat
heaUKaandadeaGaulleabasicallyachangedatheacourseaandacriticismatowardsaFrance.aFrancea
hadaaabizarreapositionaduringathisatime.
T1a-
aTheajurisdictionaofatheaNurembergaTribunal:aInternationalacrimesa(theyacameaupawitha3adiff
erentatypesaofacrimes)a&atheacriticismadevelopedaagainstaita-aans--
Articlea6:aJurisdictiona&aGeneralaprinciples
, 1.a(A)aCRIMESaAGAINSTaPEACE:a
-aMoreaoftenathananotawarahasabeen/
isaanaincentiveaelementainatheacommissionaofainternationalacrimes,aincludingagenocide:a'Th
roughoutarecordedahumanahistory,awarahasabeenatheapredominantacauseaorapretextaforama
ssacresaofanational,aethnic,aracialaorareligiousagroups'.a[ReviewaofaFurtheraDevelopmentsai
naFieldsawithawhichatheaSub-
aCommissionahasabeenaConcerned, aRevisedaandaupdatedareportaonatheaquestionaofatheapr
eventionaandapunishmentaofatheacrimeaofagenocideapreparedabyaMr.aB.aWhitaker,aUnitedaN
ationsaEconomicaandaSocialaCouncil,aCommissionaonaHumanaRights,aSub-
aCommissionaonaPreventionaofaDiscriminationaandaProtectionaofaMinorities,aThirty-
eighthasession,aE/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/6,a2aJulya1985,apara.a20]
-
aCriticismaasatheaCharter acreatedaaanewaconceptaasabeforeathereawereanoacrimesaagainstah
umanity.aTribunaladismissedathisasinceadueatoatheaKellogaBriantapactacrimesaagainsapeacea
wereainasomeaformamentionedabefore.a
2.a(B)aWARaCRIMES:a
-aNotanecessarilyabreachingatheaprincipleaofalegality,aleastacontroversialacategory.a
3.a(C)aCRIMESaAGAINSTaHUMANITY:a
-
aHeavilyacriticisedathatatheatribunalaalsoabreachedatheaprincipleaofalegalityaandacameaupawit
hanewacrimesaandathatathereforeapeopleacouldanotabeatriedabasedaonathisalaws.a
--
>aProfafindsathisacriticismatiring,aallatheaactsalistedahereawereaalreadyaillegalainatheamajorityao
fathealegalasystems,aofacourseaunderatheaNazialawsathisawasanoaissue,abutaitadoesanotameana
thatathesealawsawereanotainherentlyalegal.aTheyacoinedaandacreatedathisacategory.aCrimesa
againstahumanityapunishesabehaviourathatawasaalreadyacriminal,asoanecessarilyatheaexter
minationaofamillionsaofapeopleawouldaalsoaqualifyaasalegal.a
--
>aWhenatheyawereacreatedatheyawereaconsideredaasaaccessoryacrimes,atheyahadatoabeacon
nectedatoaanyacrimeawith
T1a-aHierarchyainaarticlea6aofatheaNurembergatriala-aans---->aProfalikesathisahierarchy!
1.aNowaitaisaclaimedathatathereaisanoahierarchya
2.aAtaNurembergathereawasaaahierarchy,afirstapeace,athenawar,athenaagainstahumanity,athisa
isapresentainaarticlea6.a
3.aWaraprovidesatheaadequateaatmosphereaofaviolenceainawhichagroupsacanabeaidentifiedaa
ndaexterminated.aAllagenocidesaallatookaplaceaduringawars,ayouacanahaveaoneawithoutaitatho
ugh,aasaitaoffersatheaadequateaincentive.a
4.aInathatasenseatheaalliesawereacorrect,ahoweveratheyawereaincorrectasinceatheacrimesaagai
nstahumanityaandagenocideastartedabeforeatheaWWII,atheawaysadealsawithathis.a
5.aHolocaustawasanotatheafocusaofatheatrial,averyafewawitnessesaandaonlya3awereaactuallyaJe
wish.
T1a-aTheaTokyoaTrialsa-aans--
1.a19aJanuarya1946:aCharteraofatheaInternationalaMilitaryaTribunalaforatheaFaraEasta(IMTFE)
a
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