.3 Possible Outcomes of Hepatitis - ANSWER-HBsAg totally cleared = immune stage
inactive carrier stage = no injury or inflammation of hepatocytes but patient can suffer from acute flares
if virus cannot be cleared and replication continues for >6 months = chronic hepatitis
.Absorption A...
.3 Possible Outcomes of Hepatitis - ANSWER-HBsAg totally cleared = immune stage
inactive carrier stage = no injury or inflammation of hepatocytes but patient can suffer from acute flares
if virus cannot be cleared and replication continues for >6 months = chronic hepatitis
.Absorption Atelectasis - ANSWER-collapsed lung combined with fluid exudation
alveoli are isolated by a mucous plug and closed pore of Kohn, resulting in atelectasis
∙can fill with stasis fluid caising infection
alveoli in West Zone 3 (lowest lung layer) are the most susceptible to this disorder b/c of their lower
ventilation/perfusion ratio
∙lower ventilation increases the probability of obstruction while higher perfusion increases the chances
of fluid exudation and infection
prevention and treatment is opening the pores of Kohn through deep breaths or positive pressure
breathing which bypasses the mucous plugs and restores ventilation
.Acute Complications of Diabetes - ANSWER-hypoglycemia
diabetic ketoacidosis
hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketotic syndrome (HHNKS or HONKS)
injury results from exposure to environmental pollutants such as asbestos
injury will cause H2O, solutes and macromolecules to diffuse from intravascular space/capillaries into
lung parenchyma and alveoli → pulmonary edema
∙pulmonary edema many times will co-exist with sepsis, resulting in further lung injury via inflammatory
mediators
ARDS many times signals beginning of multiple organ system failure
.Adrenal Glands - ANSWER-composed of an outer cortex and inner medulla
∙cortex makes up ~80% of weight, composed of 3 distinct layers that produce different hormones
zona glomerulosa is outermost layer and produces mineralocorticoids which regulate the retention of
sodium by the body
∙major minerolocorticoid is aldosterone, which is regulated by the renin-angiotensin system
next later is zona fasciculate, which produces glucocorticoids in response to ACTH stimulation
∙mainly produces cortisol
∙cortisol is involved in carbohydrate metabolism inducing hyperglycemia but also has
immunosuppressant and anti-inflammatory properties
∙also exerts negative feedback on both ACTH from anterior pituitary and CRH from hypothalamus
innermost layer is the zona reticularis, which produces the androgens
∙most DHEA, which can then be converted into other sex steroids
adrenal medulla is composed of chromaffin cells (aka pheochcromocytes) that release catechoalines
epinephrine and norepinephrine directly into blood
,.Adrenocortical Insufficiency - ANSWER-Addison's disease is an autoimmune destruction of the adrenal
glands, resulting in the loss of produced hormones
∙symptoms include muscle weakness, weight loss, low blood sugar and depression from the loss of
cortisol, as well as salt craving and low BP from the loss of aldosterone
∙b/c cortisol is not present, you have the overproduction of ACTH which will lead to hyperpigmentation
of the skin b/c ACTH shares the same first AAs with alpha-MSH
treatment is to replace the missing hormones
.Adrenogenital Syndrome - ANSWER-each class of steroids is converted to their ultimate end product by
a series of enzymes
∙if you knock out one of those enzymes, such as 21beta-hydroxylase, the precursors will be shunted into
another pathway
in congenital adrenal hyperplasia this is what happens
∙patient is no longer able to produce cortisol and instead overproduces DHEA which results in virilization
of the patient, including cliteromegaly, hirsutism and changes in fat and muscle deposition
∙additionally, b/c there is no cortisol to exert negative feedback on the pituitary, ACTH is elevated, which
only exacerbates the problem
∙treatment is to give cortisol, in an effort to restore balance
patients may also have adrenocortical neoplasms → tumors that overproduce DHEA resulting in the
same symptoms
∙removing the tumor is an effective treatment
.Aggregation - ANSWER-irreversible process
reliant on GP IIb/IIIa from activation step
∙recognizes and binds to fibrinogen
the cross-linking of GP IIb/IIIa draws in additional platelets, providing sufficient material for the clot
, ∙additional contractile elements of the platelets actually compact the clot, pulling the damaged tissue
closer together and aiding in the healing process
.Alterations in Refraction - ANSWER-as you grow, so do your eyes
they grow into shape that is most comfortable for whatever you are looking at
∙if you spend a lot of time looking at things up close, the eyes will change shape so that it is easier to
look at things up close
.Amblyopia - ANSWER-lazy eye → blindness of one eye without any physical problem of the eye
brain won't be happy with this and will choose to "ignore" one eye
solution: wear patch over good eye so that brain has to rely on bad eye → bad eye will "come back to
life" since there was no underlying physiological problem with the eye
∙with time, eyes will converge and good vision will be restored
.Anaphylactic shock - ANSWER-caused by generalized IgE hypersensitivity resulting in systemic
vasodilation and increased vascular permeability
pathway
∙antigen enters body, the IgE antibody will recognize antigen and overreact, causing an increase in
inflammatory molecules such as histamine, prostaglandins and kinins to enter via increased capillary
permeability
leads to 3 effects:
∙vasoconstriction of vascular smooth muscle in the GI and other unnecessary organs
∙increased capillary permeability resulting in edema and hypovolemia
∙increased peripheral vasodilation results in decreased SVR/TPR and hypovolemia
end results of hypovolemia: decreased CO and tissue perfusion
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