PSYC 223 EXAM 2 STUDY GUIDE
1. Revisit the material on OCD that was not on the last exam, namely the serotonin
hypothesis of OCD and psychodynamic models.
Serotonin Hypothesis: OCD arises from abnormalities in the serotonin neurotransmitter system
● Medications that increase brain levels of serotonin are effective in reducing OCD
symptoms
● Subsequent research also corroborates this: serotonin is related to OCD → because
something is correlated, we don’t know whether it is the cause or effect of OCD (we
don’t know if serotonin explains OCD pathology)
Psychodynamic Models: Psychodynamic theories propose that OCD symptoms result from
unconscious conflicts and unresolved issues stemming from early childhood experiences. These
models focus on intrapsychic dynamics, such as defense mechanisms and the role of the
unconscious mind, in the manifestation of OCD symptoms.
● Historically, there has been a polarization where “scientific psychologists” do not like
psychodynamic theories, but since, psychodynamic theories have caught up with modern
science
● They do have validity, scientifically and clinically
● Freud thought about OC behaviors in the sense that we are effectively animals, and we
have animalistic instincts and tendencies. He focused on sex and aggression, and thought
that society protects against showing those animalistic tendencies, as well as our moral
faculties.
○ Helps us understand OCD because it helps us understand the nature of obsessive
content
○ Starts to align with what we have found through neuroscience: what’s happening
at the animalistic level automatically produces content that “moves forward” and
you can’t control the animalistic parts of your brain with your forebrain and other
logical faculties
● Parsimonious way of accounting for what we see in obsessive compulsive disorder,
aligning with neuroscience, but not given as much attention for historical reasons
2. What is meant by “low rates of response contingent reinforcement,” and what does Lewinsohn
suggest this has to do with depression? What types of behaviors are a depressed person likely to
engage in and, according to Coyne, how is the social environment in which the depressed person
resides likely to respond.
Lewinsohn's theory suggests that low rates of response-contingent reinforcement (i.e.,
experiencing few positive outcomes or rewards for one's actions) contribute to the development
,and maintenance of depression. Depressed individuals may engage in fewer rewarding activities,
leading to a decrease in positive reinforcement and exacerbating depressive symptoms.
Low rates of response contingent reinforcement (RCPR)
● For aversive stimuli: Responses aimed at reducing aversive stimuli are not negatively
reinforced
● For Appetitive stimuli: Responses aimed at procuring rewards are not positively
reinforced (may also be punished)
● Ultimately, behavior that is not reinforced (or is punished) will extinguish; no matter
what the person does they are not reinforced
Lewinsohn’s (integrative) Model:
Decrease in rewards (or increase in costs) in the environment lead to lower response contingent
reinforcement which increase depressive symptoms
● Person does not engage in activities that provide reinforcement
○ e.g. finding a romantic partner, but you’re too afraid to look for one, and nothing
is happening. Because you’re not in a scenario that allows you to test this
behavior, you’re depressed b/c you’re deprived of the things you want
● The environment does not provide opportunities for reinforcement
○ e.g. Looking for a partner on a deserted island
● Inability to access available rewards (skills deficits)
○ e.g. you don’t know how to go about finding a romantic partner, so you have
the desire and you’re in the situation with rewards present, but what you’re
doing is not leading to success → low rates of RCPR
● Environment changes (e.g. loss)
○ Had everything you needed and all of a sudden your environment does not
○ e.g. person you were with moved far away, so no amount of response will bring
them back, so due to a change in the environment (outside of your control), you
feel depressed
Coyne’s (1987) Model:
Similar to Lewinsohn’s model but more focused on how the social environment responds to the
depressed individual
● An initial event or situation elicits depressive symptoms and support and reassurance
seeking
○ e.g. you got dumped, and it leads to a set of negative emotions and thoughts about
self. You feel depressed, and other people in the environment become “hype men”
(e.g. saying “there are plenty of fish in the sea.”)
● An initially positive social response over time becomes hostile or resentful to the
continued support and reassurance seeking
, ○ There is an initial positive response from others in the environment, but other
people eventually get exhausted from supporting depressed individuals. This
reflects how depression is contagious.
● Individuals either find excuses to create social distance with the depressed person or
provide only insincere support or reassurance
○ People come to support you and be around you but this only works short term
because people may eventually leave you if you’re constantly depressed
○ The depressed person may accurately interpret these as rejection or platitudes and
in any case feel socially isolated, furthering depression (Platitudes: e.g. “don’t
worry, things will be better in time.”
● For each individual, a particular theoretical model may fit best, because of depression’s
heterogeneity
Depressed individuals are likely to engage in behaviors such as social withdrawal, reduced
activity levels, decreased self-care, and impaired decision-making. Coyne suggests that the social
environment may respond with decreased positive reinforcement, increased criticism or
rejection, and reduced social support, further reinforcing the individual's depressive symptoms.
3. What is the role of avoidance behavior in depression?
Avoidance behavior involves efforts to escape or avoid situations, thoughts, or feelings that
evoke distress or anxiety. In depression, avoidance behavior may serve to temporarily alleviate
negative emotions or discomfort but can perpetuate and exacerbate depressive symptoms by
preventing individuals from confronting and addressing underlying issues.
Avoidance Behaviors
Response depression can create a self-perpetuating feedback loop:
● Depression may be adaptive if it helps you consider alternate pathways to reach a goal,
but if it causes a feedback loop, you might give up more broadly, and withdraw from
opportunities to make your situation better, and if it doesn’t get better, you’re going to
feel more depressed which will make you look at the world differently
○ Depression is a disorder essentially when you get “stuck”
● Behavioral repertoire becomes more inhibited/narrow to avoid further negative outcomes,
which is maintained through negative reinforcement (e.g.: avoidance/escape)
○ e.g. you get rejected when asking someone out so you don’t go for
opportunities where you could potentially get rejected again (e.g.: not going
out to parties or asking anyone else out) → narrowing opportunities for
reinforcement
○ May turn to short term reinforcers instead, which may have long term
implications (e.g. alcohol); within depression, instead of allowing you to think of
