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Class notes Introduction to Biomedical Sciences (AB_1136).
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2nd SeptemberThe Empirical Cycle (no need to know details, just overall picture):
- Empirical research = research based on observation and the measurement of
phenomena as directly experienced by the researcher
- Empirical evidence = objective evidence that appears the same, regardless of the
observer
- The empirical cycle (overview) = identifying the problem -> reviewing literature -> setting
research question, objective and hypothesis -> chose study design -> decide sample
design -> collecting data -> processing and analysing data -> writing report and evaluate
study -> identifying the problem (cycle repeats)
- Zoom in:
1. Identifying the problem: noticing a pattern/unexpected event/previous research
2. reviewing literature: what doe sthe research in this field already tell us about the
problem? Are there any gaps in the literature?
3. Research question and hypothesis: what exactly do you want to find out? Based
on observations, and literature, what do you think will happen?
4. Chose study design: how research variables will be measured (i.e. tools, unit of
measurement, degree of error), ethical consideration etc
5. Choose sample: how will you choose your sample of persons or events?
6. Collecting data: data collection following the study design
7. Processing and analysing data: what statistical methods need to be applied to
the data in order to accept/reject hypothesis?
8. Writing report and evaluate study: interpret results in terms of the hypothesis, if
prediction is confirmed; the hypothesis is supported (by the data), NOT proven!!
- Example: the cause of Malaria
Death due to malaria is frequent -> research i.e germ theory -> setting ROS; what is the
cause of malaria? -> case/control study design (people w malaria vs people wo malaria)
-> blood samples collected -> data analysed (malaria blood had “moving granules”) ->
papers published (protosoan parasite causes malaria) -> where does the parasite come
from? (cycle continues)
- Challenges along the way: getting research approved, money availability, data collection,
drawing the correct conclusion
9 September
Reading academic literature
1. What is scientific literature
, How it is produced: researchers write about their research; these are the authors. This is then
submitted to a scientific/scholar journal (scientific journal =use peer review and do checks by
colleagues in the field). After the peer review, certain part may need to be
reconsidered/changed etc. Then finally, it is published. The process takes more than a year
Two types of scientific literature:
- Primary literature = original research article with surveys and case reports/case studies
- Secondary literature = review (can be narrative, systematic or meta-analysis (= specific
statistical analysis that is a combination of previous statistical studies), and you make a
summary of what is already known in the field
2. How can you look for it?
How to read it? You don't have to read all articles from start to finish, also some articles may
need to be re-read, it can be too complicated as well.
3. Steps
The method:
- Zapping: pick a relevant article (look for keywords, the type of literature, the journal and
the publication date (try to have the publication date at a max of 10 yrs ago)
- Skim reading: grasp the paper’s content, but not in details
- Structurally focused reading: understand the paper in depth
16th September
Variables and Descriptive statistics
What is methodology and statistics?
- Science is the process of collecting data through observations
- Methodology is the study of methods used to collect data, make observations, and
address RQ
- Statistics is a set of mathematical tools that help us draw conclusions
- If we want to observe something in a population for e.g., we will take a sample to use the
statics to describe our sample, and make inferences to answer our RQ
Types of variables?
- A variable is a characteristic of an individual. Can be categorized into two: a)their role in
a study, and b) the type of data they describe
a) Their role in a study: The independent variable ( is intentionally manipulated by
the researcher ) and the dependent variable (this is measured to determine our
experimental outcome) and the control variable (this variable is kept consistent
across all individuals)
b) The type of data they describe: we can classify data based on: categorical data
(=described with words) and quantitative data (=data in the form of numbers,
discrete)
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