This document provides a comprehensive summary of key concepts in cellular biology and genetics. It starts with an overview of the phases of mitosis and the cell cycle, including the role of the genome and chromosome structure. Next, the significance of meiosis and genetic variation, as well as the...
Test bank for campbell biology 12th edition all chapters 1-56 full complete latest 2024
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biology
Moleculaire genetica
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Mitose
1. Genome
● Definition: The genetic material (DNA) of a cell.
● Structure: Partitioned among chromosomes.
2. Cell Cycle Phases
Interphase (Growth and preparation for division):
● G1 phase (First Gap):
○ Cell growth.
○ Preparation for DNA replication.
● S phase (Synthesis):
○ DNA replication → Chromosomes now consist of two sister chromatids.
● G2 phase (Second Gap):
○ Further cell growth.
○ Preparation for mitosis.
3. Mitotic (M) Phase (Cell Division):
● Mitosis: Division of the nucleus.
○ Prophase: Chromosomes condense; mitotic spindle forms.
○ Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
○ Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate.
○ Telophase: Nuclear envelope reforms; chromosomes decondense.
● Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm (Cleavage in animal cells, cell plate formation
in plant cells).
4. Mitotic Spindle
● Definition: Made up of microtubules.
● Function: Controls chromosome movement.
● Arises from: Centrosomes in animal cells.
● Key Components:
○ Asters: Star-shaped microtubules near centrosomes.
○ Kinetochore Microtubules: Attach to chromosomes.
○ Nonkinetochore Microtubules: Push poles apart for cell elongation.
, 5. Cell Cycle Checkpoints
● G1 Checkpoint ("Restriction point"):
○ Determines if the cell will proceed with division or enter G0 (non-dividing
state).
● G2 Checkpoint:
○ Ensures all DNA is replicated and the cell is ready for mitosis.
● M Checkpoint:
○ Ensures all chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle before
separation.
6. Cell Cycle Control Molecules
● Cyclins: Proteins that regulate the cycle.
● Cyclin-Dependent Kinases (Cdks): Enzymes that, when activated by cyclins, signal
progression through the cell cycle.
7. Cancer and Cell Cycle
● Normal Cells: Density-dependent inhibition, anchorage dependence.
● Cancer Cells: Ignore normal regulation, divide uncontrollably, can metastasize.
Interphase → Mitosis → Cytokinesis.
Meiose
1. Basic Concept: Sexual Reproduction
● Gene Inheritance: Offspring inherit genes located at specific loci on chromosomes.
● Asexual Reproduction: Offspring are genetically identical to the parent (via mitosis).
● Sexual Reproduction: Combines genes from two parents, resulting in genetic
diversity.
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