Week 1
Introduction to studying comparative politics
General notes
o This edition of the book particularly added authoritarian systems and hybrid systems alongside democratic
systems
o We should be guided by the learning outcomes of each week for exam revisions
DEFINITIONS
Social science= The study of human society and of the structured interactions among people within society so
that we may better understand them
Political science= Political science is a social science. It is the study of theory and practise of government and
politics, focusing on the structure and dynamics of institutions, political processes and political behaviour
o There is not one proof with political science, there are allot of different perspectives. There is not one
SC who has the last say, so different perspectives exist at the same time.
Democracy: A political system in which government is based on a fair and open mandate from all qualified
citizens of a state
COMPARTATIVE POLITICS
Comparative politics=The systematic study of government and politics in different countries, designed to
better understand them by drawing out their contrasts and similarities
o Comparative politics is one of the major sub-field of political science but is arguably the most important
Others sub-fields: International Relations, national politics, political philosophy, political theory and
public policy
o We can understand how government and politics works by examining its varieties across a range of cases
so we can develop theories and rules of politics
o We see how similar problems are approached by different societies
1.) Broadens our understanding of the political world
2.) Help us to predict political outcome
(1) Broadening our understanding
-By comparing systems, we can see if the object of the study was usual or unusual, efficient or inefficient, the
best option available or significantly lacking in some way
-The observer who only studies one country could interpret as normal what in fact appears to the comparitivist
as abnormal
(2) Help to predict political outcome
-More disputed as to weather this is true because of the evolving nature of human society
-In theory, through comparative generalization may be able to predict the outcome of a political event.
OUTLINE
Describe and explain:
(1) Key concepts of comparative politics such as politics, political system, government and governance;
(2) Different definitions and dimensions of power as well as methods to do research into power.
Describe and compare:
(3) Theoretical approaches to politics
, PART 1: KEY CONCEPTS
What is a key concept?
Concept
A general idea, term or category expressed in a word or phrase
‘Key concept’
Grasping the essence of politics
Concepts as analytical tools
Tool for thinking, arguing, explaining and analysing the difference between different political systems
(1) Concept 1: Government ‘the governing body’
Government= Institutions and structures through which societies are governed
-Functions top down, command and control
Institution=A formal organization or practise with a political purpose or effect, marked by durability and
internal complexity
Includes:
(1) Highest level of political office: Narrow concept
-Presidents, prime ministers, legislatures, governors, mayors and others at the apex of power
(2) All organizations charged with reaching and executing decisions for the community: Broader concept includes the
entire community endowed with public authority
-Police, military, bureaucrats and judges are all part of the government
These organizations do not come to office through the methods usually associated with
government such as elections
* In this course we look at the broader concept
Side note: Government as a concept could also be used to refer to:
(a) Group of people who govern: Japanese government
(b) A specific administration: Putin administration
(c) The form of a system of rule: centralized government
(d) The character of the administration of a community: Good governance
Hobbes case for government (1651) Locke’s case for government (1690)
(1) Starting point=fundamental equality and ability Critic of Hobbes…
to inflict harm on one another
(2) Clashes of ambitions brings about fears of ‘There is no profit in avoiding the dangers of foxes if the
attack outcome is simply to be devoured by Lions’’
(3) Without a ruler to keep us in check the situation
becomes grim ‘and such a war, as is of every
man, against every man’
(4) People agree to government to avoid a life that
would otherwise be ‘solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish and short.’
(5) We transform anarchy into order, securing
peace and the opportunity for mutually
beneficial cooperation
The purpose of government in a democracy Democratic v authoritarian system
Government provides security and predictability to those In a democracy the government is influenced by wider
who live under its jurisdiction. Citizens and businesses forces, such as interest groups, political parties, the
can make long term plans knowing that laws are media, corporations and public opinion. However, in an
developed in a standardised fashion, take into account authoritarian system government becomes the property
competing opinions and are consistently applied. of a dominant individual or clan
, (2) Concept 2: Governance ‘the act of governing’
Governance= The process by which decisions, laws and policies are made, with or without the input of
formal institutions. The activity of governing.
Exact difference between the governance and government
-Governance is more than government it is about process of governing
-Less top down
-Directs out attention away from governments command- and -control function towards the broader task of
public regulation, a role which ruling politicians in democracies share with other bodies
- How we all together make the political system work; it is collective decision making and how we together
make and enforce the rules
-Constant interaction involving governments, corporations and interest groups all of which amount to the
process of governing.
-Can involve private organizations
Example: The railway system (NS) & in the book Freedomhouse which is an institute which tries to measure
how democratic a state is (looking at civil rights and liberties), they rank countries against each other and
monitor them so they sort of take part in governance.
(3) Concept 3: State
State=The legal and political authority (sovereignty) to rule over a population within a defined territory as
recognised by citizens and other states. States provide the legal mandate for the work of governments allowing
them to use the authority inherent in the state to govern that territory. They are also, a unit of comparison, in
comparative politics, you can compare the way different states do things
Legal mandate means government is authoritative in the sense that it can enforce rules by legitimate
use of violence. This is different to mafia/terrorist groups make rules and enforce them but they are
illegitimate.
States are still the basis for our understanding of government and politics around the world. Almost
everyone is a citizen of a state and when we think about government, we also think about states
Difference between state and government
The state defines the political community of which the government is the managing agent. By enjoying a
monopoly of authority, the state creates a mandate of rule which the government then puts into effect
The features of a state
Government States have governments with the recognised authority
to administer and to represent the state in dealings with
other governments
Population Stets contain populations without whom the territory
concerned would be little more than a block of real
estate
Legitimacy States are normally recognised both by their residents
and by other states as having jurisdiction and authority
within their territory
Territory States operate within a fixed territory marked by
borders, and control the movement of people, money
and goods across those borders
Sovereignty States have sovereignty over that territory, its people
and resources, meaning that they have the sole authority
to impose laws and taxes
Sovereignty
, Key feature of a state
The ultimate source of authority in a society. The sovereign is the highest and final decision-maker in a
community.
Unitary states of Europe
-Originally monarchs held this sovereignty
-Modern democracies of Europe-elected assemblies acting on behalf of the people are the true holders
of sovereignty
Federal states
-Authority is shared between the central and regional government. In these circumstances the idea of
sovereignty is diluted and so too is the concept of the state
Citizenship
Also inherent in the notion of the state
Citizenship implies full and equal membership of the political community defined by the state
Historical Origins of the State
-Before the modern state, government and politics was mainly associated with kingdoms, empires and cities.
These were governed in a personal and highly decentralized fashion, only concerned with their close
neighbour states activities
-Westphalia System 1648:
The modern state system emerged
States as sovereign equals
-The system was born in Europe but was then exported to the rest of the world by imperial powers such as
Britain, France and Spain
Active periods for states
First Wave: early 19th century
-Spanish/Portuguese territories of Latin America
-Wars of independence from their colonial rulers to become states
Second Wave: End of WW1
-Collapse of the Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Ottoman Empires
-Dissolved into sperate states
Third Wave: Post WW2
-At a global level, the most active period for the formation of states began after WWII as
decolonization saw the end of European Empires: nearly 70 mainly African and Asian countries
achieved independence in the 1960s/70s
Fourth Wave: 1991
-Collapse of communism and dissolution of the Soviet Union
-The Russian Empire was split into 15 successor states
Challenges for the state
Is the state still important?
First school of through: States are as strong as ever & important
-They have the monopoly over the control and use of militaries
-They are still the key actors in the management of the economy (inc international trade)
-Citizens still identify themselves with the state and are subject to the rules of that state
-Because of technological innovation states have strengthened their grip on citizens & so their
capacity has increased
Internet/cameras/technology means the state can follow the activities of citizens through
monitoring people are now talking of the security state!
Second school of thought: states are becoming stronger
Key idea: The Security State
, A state that makes efforts to follow the activities of its citizens through such means as closed-
circuits television ad the monitoring of phone calls and internet use.
-The state is involved in the lives of citizens in ways that are not always obvious
-In their efforts to address international terrorism, many states have accumulated broader powers that
impinge on personal privacy and to limit the movement and the choices of those who travel and live
within their borders
-monitoring closed circuit television and phone calls and internet use has offered new tools for the
state to track its population, including ordinary citizens, terrorist and suspected terrorists
Third school of thought: States are weakening & not so important
-Demand of minorities for self-determination and independence
Eg Catalonians
-Globalisation
-The process by which politics, economics, culture, technology, and the provision of basic services
have been integrated across state borders
-States are impacted more than ever before by events and developments of other states, and have lost
some of their powers to effect change
Increase in economic interdependence we are now really reliant on each other and cannot
independently steer the national economy such as international trade and even EU regulation
-Expansion of interstate cooperation on a wide range of issues has diluted their independent existence
States have signed numerous bilateral/multilateral international treaties
States are linked in a number of Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) responsible for
encouraging and monitoring cooperation on a wide range of maters
UN, WTO
We see that there are challenges for the state but that the state is still going strong
Perhaps it is best to view it that rather than declining states may instead be undergoing a process of
change as developments in trade (Globalization), international law (interstate cooperation), and
modernization have changed the nature of their power, the relationships among them, and the
relationship between states and citizens
(4) Concept 4: Authority
Authority= The right to rule. Authority creates its own power, so long as people accept that the person in
authority has the right to make decisions
o Authority is broader than power, where power is the capacity to act, authority is the acknowledged
right to do so, anybody can have power, but not everyone has been acknowledged in their execution
of it.
o Authority exists when subordinates accept the capacity of superior to give legitimate orders. However,
it is more than voluntary compliance, because to acknowledge the authority of your state does not
mean that you always agree with its decisions, it means only that you accept its right to make them
and your duty to obey them.
o Authority provides the foundation of the state
Sources of authority (according to Webster)
By tradition-The accepted way of doing thing
By charisma-intense commitment to a leader and his/her message
By appeal to legal-rational norms-the rule-governed powers of an office, rather than a person
(5) Concept 5: Legitimacy
Legitimacy=The condition of being legitimate. A legitimate system of government is one based on authority,
and those subject to its rule recognise its right to make decisions.
o Legitimacy builds on but is broader than authority.
, o When a state is widely accepted by its citizens, and by other states with which it deals, we describe it
as legitimate.
o Legitimacy is more than just legality, legality is a technical matter, referring to weather a rule is made
correctly by following regular procedures, legitimacy is a more political concept, referring to weather
people accept the authority of a state, without which its very existence is in question.
o Public opinion, not the court is the test for legitimacy
Distinction with authority
o We speak of the authority of an individual, but the legitimacy of the state
(6) Concept 6: Political system
Political system= The interactions and organizations through which a society reaches and successfully
enforces collective decisions
Government plus the wider forces though which collective decisions are reached and enforced
o The forces and influences surrounding the government come together to form a political system, which
includes all the factors involved in the political life of a given state or community
Who are the wider forces?
o All of civil society
Different interest groups could be big Corporations or Labour Organizations
Model political system
o Eastons model= Canadian political scientist
o Wanted to turn political science into a real system
o He regarded the institutions as the political system who make decisions and take actions
o
Input (influenced by environment)
Demand: = people, different groups who address their demands to the political system
Support= of the political system so this could be people paying their taxes
Output (influenced by environment)
Decisions and actions= Legislation and policies
Continuous cycle
These legislation/policies will interact with the environment (societal context) and from that will come new demand
and support addressed at the political system so we go back through the cycle again
Problem with Eastons model
(1) Only the decisions/ actions of institutions are taken into consideration: what about other actors in the political
system such as political groups, it should be broader
(2) The demands in the input side of citizens are taken to be facts: not shaped by institutions or commerce but
their real wishes or preferences. However: It is not only citizens who have impact on the system but also the
system has impact on citizens
This system only went one way which was not right, it is reciprocal
Classifying political systems
, o Although most states have the same core element; an executive, legislature, courts, a constitution, parties and
interest groups the manner in which these elemtns work is differnt in each emaning that some are clearly
democratic and some athoritarian whilst others lie in the middle
Typology= A system of classification by which states, institutions, processes, political cultures annnd so on
are divided into different grous ot types with common sets of attributes
Histroical example: The three world system (cold war)
A politcal typology taht divided the world along ideological lines, with states labelled according to the side they tool
in the cold war
First world: democratic indistrialized stateswestern alliance against communism
Second world: communsit systemsallaince againsgt western allience
Third world: poorer, less democratic and less developed statesno allienace in cold war
Two modern typologies
(1) EIU (Economic Intelligence Unit)UK based
-Democracy index based on 60 different measures
-Gives states a score out of 10
-Divides states into full democracies, flawed democracies, hybrid regimes and authoritarian regimes
(2) The Freedom World Index US based
-Looks at state records in political rights (abilty of to participate in the political process) and civil liberties
(including freedom of expression, independence of judiciary, personal autonomy and economic rights)
-goves each state score out of 100
-Divides states into free, partly free or not free
(7) Concept 7: Politics
Politics=The process by which people negotiate and compete in the process of making and executing shared
or collective decisions
(1) Collective activity occurring between and among people
(2) Involves making decisions regarding a course of action to take or an agreement to be resolved
(3) Once reached these political decisions become authoritative policy for the group, binding and committing
it members (some may resist which in itself is political activity)
(4) Public authority is used to implement collective policy and citizens who fail to contribute to the common
task may be fined or even imprisoned.
Where does it take place?
At both the national and international level
What is it?
Two categories
(1) Scholars who think politics is working towards the common interest
o Idealistically politics can be defined as the process of making and executing collective decisions based on the
pursuit of a groups common interest, or at least on seeking peaceful reconciliation of the difference interests
within a group
Politics is a peaceful process of open discussion leading to collective decisions acceptable to all
stakeholder in society
Hannah Arnedt (German philosopher)
Following Aristotle sees politics as an activity connected to the good life, together we have to work to
make this a better place for everyone to live. Politics is good for society and the individual, participation
in politics makes you a better human being
Quote: ‘Politics is acting in concert to make the best of ourselves’
Robert Dahl (American Political Scientist)
Quote: ‘Politics is resolving inevitable conflicts, in a peaceful manner’
, *Political scientists see conflict not really as a bad thing but just something which will inevitably happen and
we need to solve them in a peaceful manner
(2) Scholars who think politics is about competition for power
o Perhaps more realistically politics can be seen as a competitive struggle for power and resources between
people and groups seeking their own advantage. Politics is a competition for acquiring and keeping power, a
process that yields winners and losers.
Politics can involve narrow concerns taking precedence over collective benefits when those in
authority lace their own goals above those of the wider community, using methods that can spill over
into manipulation, corruption and perhaps even violence and bloodshed
Machiavelli (The first empirical scholar in politicshow things work in reality)
Politics is about how rulers acquire power and how they keep it not really at what was good in theory
What works is instilling fear in people more so than being a benevolent ruler (fear over love)
Harold Lasswell (American Political Scientist)
Politics is who gets what, when and how
Who earns the wealth and the power to decide when and how this happens
These two perspectives show that politics involves both shares and competing interests: cooperation and
conflict: reason and force. The essence of politics lies in the interaction between conceptions. We should not
narrow our vision by reducing politics to either one of the two perspectives.
As Laver (1983): ‘Pure conflict s war. Pure cooperation is true love. Politics is a mixture of both’
Studying and comparing definition of politics
Easton: Politics is the ‘authoritative allocation of values’ by the government.
• Only the institutions are involved in politics: top down idea of politics
Hague et al. (2019), p. 4: Process by which people negotiate and compete in order to make and execute
shared or collective decisions.
• Much broader definition not so top down and sees the role of governance in politics which includes a
greater number of actors in the process of collective decision making
(8) Concept 8: Ideology
Ideology=Any system of thought expressing a view on human nature, the proper relationship between state
and society, and the individual’s position within this order
5 major ideologies
1.) Anarchism
All forms of governmental authority are unnecessary, and society is best structured around voluntary
cooperation and free association
2.) Marxism
Elimination of the state system and private property will lead to the creation of a classless, non-exploitative
and self-governing society
3.) Liberalism
Individuals are the best judges of their own interests. Advocates a tolerant society which maximises personal
freedom, and favours a government which is limited but freely elected.
4.) Conservatism
Traditional institutions and practises work best, the free market is the most efficient at meeting societal needs,
and government should be as decentralised as possible
5.) Fascism
Supports the achievement of national unity through an authoritarian state, strong leadership, mass
mobilization, and an emphasis on nationalism and militarism
Current ideologies
, The age of ideologies seems to have passed because political parties no longer represent a coherent system of
ideas
Nowadays we have a spectrum between right and left, but they are more aligned with a particular party or
class then an ideology as such these days
Left=Equality, human rights and reform
Right=Tradition, established authority and pursuit of national interest
, PART 2: POWER
Power=The capacity to being about intended effect. The term is often used as a synonym for influence, but is
also used more narrowly to refer to more forceful modes of influence notably, getting ones ay by threats
o At the heart of politics is the distribution and manipulation of power
2 idea of power
(1) Power to..
• Capacity to bring about intended effects
• Authority meaning the right to act, the legal authority is part of it but it does not necessarily have to be
legal it could be because of tradition and accepted by the people that this person takes decisions
(2) Power over..
• Always contains a relationship so the power of you over another person/collective
Case studies on ‘power over’
Hunter (political scientist):
‘Power is the ability of one person to affect, modify, or in some way shape the actions of another’
Case study: Hunter (Atlanta)
• He wanted to know who had power over Atlanta, the American City
• 50s/60s: The economy was growing and economic inequality was starting to grown at the same time
• Political scientists wanted to know if political equality existed amongst this economic inequality even though
there was technically still legal equality
• Took list of 175 possible leaders in the community of Atlanta
• He askes people who they thought was most important on the list
• Bought list down to 40 candidates
• Held interviews with all 40 of them
• Looked at their relations with other important people and their influence in projects
Conclusion: Atlanta is run by a small elite, who are people and business/ land, they govern this city
Case study: Robert Dahl
*Disagreed with Hunter
• Said Hunter did not do his research correctly
• You can only talk about a ruling elite in the case that
‘Preference of the hypothetical ruling elite run counter to that of any other group and those of any other likely
group’.
• And:
‘These preferences regularly prevail’ which means the elite preferences dominate and are granted
• Definition/influence of power
‘An actor has influence to the extent that outcome [of the decision making process] is in accordance with the
actors explicit preference
Who governs? Dahl 1961 (New Haven)
• He looked at all important decisions of local government between 1950 and 1958 and who proposed and who
won in 3 subject areas
-Urban development
-Public education
-Political nominations
Conclusion:
• There is no such thing as a ruling elite, influence/power is more a less equally distributed, it is disbursed.
• Although he did acknowledge that some group may be excluded.
• New Haven and other Western political system are polyarchies: the vest possible form of democracy
• Dahl was criticised for excluding the whole black community from this research
Different phases of decision making
1.) Initiation
Someone’s says there is a problem
2.) Formulation
In this phase the ones in charge acknowledge the problem and formulate a solution
