Consider Ethics: Theory, Readings, and Contemporary Issues, 4th edition
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Consider Ethics: Theory,
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Readings, and Contemporary
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Issues, 4th edition
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Authors: Bruce N. Waller
◊ ALL CHAPTERS
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◊ ORIGINAL FROM PUBLISHER
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MEDCONNOISSEUR
, Table of Contents
1. Thinking About Ethics 1
2. Thinking Critically About Ethics 7
3. Egoism and Relativism 13
4. Ethics and Emotions 20
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5. Ethics and Reason 26
6. Intuitionism 32
7. Reflective Equilibrium 38
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8. Utilitarian Ethics 43
9. Social Contract Ethics 49
10. Care Ethics 55
11. Virtue Ethics 60
12. Pluralism and Pragmatism 66
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13. Moral Realism Versus Moral 71
Anti-Realism
14. The Scope of Morality 79
15. Free Will and Moral Responsibility 85
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Appendix A – G 93
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, Chapter 1: Thinking About Ethics
Summary
The text discusses the goals of studying ethics. It will explore how to think carefully, critically, and
effectively, along with how to avoid errors in thinking. Some people believe that ethics is not based on
reasoning, but is built upon emotions, feelings, and intuitions. Other people believe there are no
objectively true ethical principles. The chapter explores the arguments for and against theological
voluntarism—the principle that ethical principles depend on what God wills. A number of ethicists
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believe there are no fixed facts in ethics and that any attempt to reach basic objective ethical principles is
doomed to failure. Religion also influences ethical inquiry. If a person rejects religious voluntarism, it
does not mean that religions considerations are also rejected. The text considers what ethics might be
based on if they are not based on God’s will.
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Studying Ethics
1.1. Summarize the goals of studying ethics.
Ethics is the discipline that explores how we should live and how we should act. Ethical inquiry takes
into account the findings of psychology and sociology, but it is distinct from them. It is not the intention
of this book to make you a better person. This book will help you explore a wide range of different, and
often conflicting, accounts of ethics. You can then decide where your own views fit. This book is
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designed to give you an opportunity to think carefully about some major issues in metaethics (the study
of the nature of ethics) and some specific ethical questions. It is possible throughout this course, that
your views on certain issues may change.
The Nature of Ethical Principles
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There are many good places to start an examination of ethics, but one of the most disputed questions is:
What kinds of truths are ethical truths? Are they eternal, absolute, and universal, known only by some
special power; or are they more common ordinary facts that are part of our world that can be known by
ordinary means? Philosophers have taken various stands with regard to moral truths. Plato believed that
moral principles are eternal truths that are known only through pure reason—reason that sees through the
senses and discovers the fixed, immutable truth. Aristotle regarded moral principles as basic guides to
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living a good life. Moses found truth on a mountaintop, in the presence of God. Descartes believed that
God implants moral principles in our minds as innate ideas. Kant discovered the basic governing
principle of morality through rigorous reasoning. Thomas Hobbes believed that morality is a collection
of self-interested agreements that contributed to a more peaceful society. Bentham asserted that the basic
moral principle is to maximize pleasure and minimize suffering. Hume insisted that morality is rooted in
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the affection that humans feel for one another.
Knowing Ethical Principles
Those who believe in absolute moral principles believe they must exist. They are universal, eternal,
moral principles that are unconditionally true whether one recognizes them or not. Some claim that the
truths are dictated by God; others believe that each of us has a conscience or moral sense that implants in
us basic moral truths.
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Natural Morality versus Transcendent Morality
Is morality something that rises above the natural world? Is morality something that transcends the
natural world? Is morality a more natural process, based on our emotions or on rules we draw up for
promoting social harmony? People have strong opinions about these questions. Those who oppose
absolute ethics have little patience with the transcendent absolutism favored by Halverson and others.
They believe denying transcendent absolutes does not lead to moral anarchy and that the benefits of
cooperation and honesty require neither divine sanction nor special insight.
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, God’s Commandments and Ethics
1.2. Analyze the arguments for and against theological voluntarism.
One of the most common views of ethical principles is that they are tied to the commands of a divine
being. This view is referred to as theological volunteerism or the Divine Command theory of ethics.
Theological volunteerism holds that a law or principle is right if and only if it is willed (commanded) by
God. Something is good because God wills it to be so, not because God recognizes it to be good. For
example, God does not condemn murder because it is wrong. Murder is wrong because God says it is
wrong. Many people turn to religion for ethical guidance. There are some who insist that their personal
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religious beliefs provide the only acceptable ethical standards. There are contradictions in religious texts
about many questions of right and wrong.
Ethical Principles as Divine Commandments
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Theological volunteerism raises serious questions about the relationship between ethics and religion. If
ethics is based on God's commands, there are two questions we might ask about the nature of these
command: (1) Is something moral/ethical/right because God commands it, or (2) does God command
something because it is moral? These questions expose a tension between the religious views of ancient
Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotle, and the religion of the ancient Hebrews. Aristotle’s God is
perfect, completely self-sufficient, and unchanging. The God of Abraham changes His mind often, and
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He rewards and punishes people.
Problems with Theological Voluntarism
Theological voluntarists believe that God is the sole arbiter of ethics that the ethical principles or
commandments laid down by God are absolute, universal, and eternal. They are not subject to critical
examination or questioning. Critically examining ethical principles requires involving standards of ethical
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judgment independent of God’s commands. Many religious people have a great respect for reason and use
it to understand their religion. For theological voluntarists, reason is more likely to be an enemy rather than
an ally. Some argue whether such total unthinking devotion would qualify as ethical behavior at all.
Rachels argues that only those who exercise free will are capable of acting ethically.
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God’s Law and Punishment
The intersection of religion and ethics raises another fundamental distinction in ethics, namely, the
difference between moral motivation and moral justification. It is possible that the person of faith endorses
theological volunteerism because of the possibility of divine punishment. While this may provide one with
a motive for obeying God’s commands, it does not justify the commands themselves. One may be
motivated to act in accordance with certain rules, without reflecting on whether the rules are ones that
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ought to be followed.
Religion and Ethics
1.3. Outline the influence of religion on ethical inquiry.
If we reject theological voluntarism, it does not imply the rejection of religious considerations in terms of
our inquiry into ethics. Martin Luther King’s civil rights campaign drew heavily on religious symbolism.
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Religious parables and traditions have often stimulated reform movements and have encouraged us to look
more closely at our lives, habits, and assumptions. So, if ethics is not based on God’s will or God’s
punishments, what is the basis of ethics?
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