This guide is your go-to resource for building a solid foundation in anatomy.
Core Concepts: Learn essential directional terms, the mechanics of blood flow in capillary beds, and types of neurons and glial cells. Detailed explanations of skeletal muscle and bone structures offer a complete under...
● Anterior/Posterior: Anterior refers to the front of the body (or structure), while posterior
refers to the back. For example, the sternum is anterior to the heart, and the vertebral
column is posterior.
● Superior/Inferior: Superior means towards the head, while inferior refers to a position
lower on the body. For example, the head is superior to the chest, while the feet are
inferior to the knees.
● Proximal/Distal: Proximal refers to a point closer to the origin of a limb, while distal
refers to a point farther from the origin. For example, the shoulder is proximal to the
wrist, and the hand is distal to the elbow.
● Rostral/Caudal: Rostral refers to a structure toward the nose or front of the head, while
caudal refers to structures toward the tail or feet. These terms are often used in brain
anatomy.
2. Blood Flow in a Capillary Bed:
Blood enters capillary beds through arterioles and exits via venules. Capillary exchange
involves two main forces:
● Hydrostatic Pressure: This pressure pushes fluid out of capillaries into the interstitial
space, providing nutrients and oxygen to cells.
● Colloid Osmotic Pressure: Caused by proteins (mainly albumin), it pulls fluid back into
the capillaries, preventing excessive fluid loss.
● Lymphatic Vessels: These vessels remove excess fluid from tissues to prevent edema
(swelling). They maintain proper fluid balance by draining fluid that isn't reabsorbed by
capillaries.
3. Types of Neurons and Glial Cells:
● Neurons (by function):
○ Sensory (afferent): Transmit signals from receptors to the CNS.
○ Motor (efferent): Carry impulses from CNS to muscles/glands.
○ Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS.
● Neurons (by structure):
○ Unipolar: Have one process, primarily in sensory neurons.
○ Bipolar: Have one axon and one dendrite, found in special senses like vision.
○ Multipolar: Multiple dendrites and one axon, common in the CNS.
● Glial Cells (PNS):
○ Schwann Cells: Form myelin sheaths around PNS neurons.
○ Satellite Cells: Support neurons in PNS ganglia.
● Glial Cells (CNS):
, ○ Astrocytes: Provide structural support, regulate blood-brain barrier.
○ Oligodendrocytes: Myelinate CNS neurons.
○ Microglia: Act as immune cells.
○ Ependymal Cells: Line brain ventricles, produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
4. Skeletal Muscle and Nerve Structure:
● Skeletal Muscle Organization: Muscle → Fascicle → Muscle Fiber → Myofibril →
Sarcomere. The sarcomere is the functional unit responsible for contraction.
● Nerve Structure: Nerves are made up of bundles of axons (fascicles), each surrounded
by connective tissue layers: endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium.
5. Neuron Interaction with Skeletal Muscle:
● Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): The synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle
fiber. Acetylcholine (ACh) is released, triggering an action potential in the muscle,
causing calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and resulting in muscle
contraction.
6. Bone Ossification:
● Intramembranous Ossification: Occurs mainly in flat bones like the skull and clavicles.
Bone forms directly from mesenchymal tissue.
● Endochondral Ossification: Involves cartilage as a precursor, seen in long bones like
the femur. This process starts during fetal development and continues through
childhood.
7. Compact vs. Spongy Bone:
● Compact Bone: Dense, forms the outer layer of bones, providing strength. Found in the
diaphysis (shaft) of long bones.
● Spongy Bone: Less dense, contains trabeculae, and is found in the epiphysis (ends) of
long bones. Red bone marrow, responsible for blood cell production, is found in spongy
bone, particularly in the pelvis, sternum, and femur.
8. Clinical Conditions:
● Osteoporosis: A condition where bones become brittle due to decreased bone density,
often due to aging or hormonal changes.
● Osteomalacia: Softening of bones due to vitamin D deficiency, leading to bone pain and
weakness.
● Osteosarcoma: A type of bone cancer, typically affecting long bones.
● Arthritis: Inflammation of joints causing pain and stiffness.
9. Atherosclerosis:
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