Provides information on natural selection, sexual selection, the Parental Investment Model, instinct theory, ethological theory & key concepts, imprinting & critical periods, and human ethology.
Conceptualizing and Measuring Motivation and the Role of Evolution in Motivation
Hedonism and Sensory Stimulation
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Psychology
PSYC2230 (PSYC2230)
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PSYC2230: Chapter 2 PowerPoint
Genetics and Motivation [pg. 35 - 60]
Instincts [pg. 36 - 39]
Genetically motivated behaviours that occur when certain conditions are present, and which require
no learning
Early instinct theories were popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Concept of instinct acted as
a “theoretical bridge” between animal and human behaviour and thus evolution applied to both
humans and animals; to physical, to behaviour, and the mind
o Therefore, a continuity between human and animal behaviour is promoted
Nominal Fallacy: Naming a behaviour as instinctive does not explain it. Labeling is not an explanation;
rather, necessary to specify conditions that led to behaviour. Cause-effect analysis attempts to do this.
William James: Instincts are similar to reflexes, occur blindly the first time and are elicited by stimuli.
Instinct is an “impulse to action” and impulse to action motivates behaviour. Instinct is modifiable
however, through experience and learning. Two principles account for variability of instinct:
1. A learned habit can inhibit an instinct (e.g. fear may inhibit instinctual response curiosity,
appeasement may inhibit aggression, and thus conflict may arise as to which instinct might
occur: appeasement or aggression).
2. Instincts are transitory, useful at certain times at a given developmental period (e.g. newly
hatched chic instinctively follows a new, moving object early in life. Exposed the first time later
to the object it will run away. Thus, critical period exists when instinctive behaviour occurs
automatically but if critical period is past, behaviour may not occur [pg. 45 - 46]).
o James saw instinct as providing a base from which new behaviours may be built through learning.
Thus, instincts are intermediate between reflexes and learning
William McDougall: Instincts are more than dispositions to react; instincts have three essential
components:
1. Cognitive: Knowing an object can satisfy the need upon which the instinct is based (ex.
organism knows the object will satisfy the need based on past experience with the goal-object).
2. Affective: The feeling (emotion) that the object arouses in the organism (ex. organism is
aroused-motivated-emotional about the goal-object).
3. Conative: The instinctual striving toward (approach) or away (avoidance) from the object (ex.
organism strives persistently-vigorously toward the goal).
o Striving toward the goal shows the purposiveness of instinctual behaviour
o McDougall’s notion of the purposiveness of instinctual behaviour suggests a Teleological analysis;
the idea that behaviour serves some ultimate purpose or goal
Considering the cognitive capacities of humans, it is not unreasonable to assume one may predict or
foresee the outcome of an action
Purposiveness applied to animal behaviour has not been considered a reasonable assumption, for
Teleological assumptions do not fit well with a Mechanistic model of animal action
Modifications of Instinct: McDougall suggested four ways:
1. Instinct may be activated by a goal-object, the idea of the object, or by related external objects
or ideas.
, PSYC2230: Chapter 2 PowerPoint
2. Movements through which the instinctive behaviour occurs may be modified as when curiosity
instinct toward external environment changes to more intellectual pursuits (e.g. child explores
physical world first, then the world of ideas & symbols through language; enjoys being read to
and learns to read, draw, and engages in role playing; symbolic behaviours).
3. Several instincts may be initiated and resulting instinct is a blend of these (ex. sexual behaviour
may be a “blend” of curiosity & mating instincts, and resulting behaviour ay be flirting, a
compromise reflecting both instincts).
4. An instinct may become organized around particular objects, ideas, or situations and become
less responsive to other objects, ideas, or situations
a. As the instinct is more focused, fixation may occur as suggested by Freud
Anthropomorphism: McDougall believed he could infer the feelings of other organisms by asking
himself how he would feel in a similar situation, thus heaping criticism from more “hard-nosed”
behavioural scientists. The subjectivity of anthropomorphism was rejected.
Criticisms of Instinct Theories as shown by Kuo’s (1921) analysis:
1. No agreement as to what types or how many instincts exist. Lists of instincts are arbitrary and
depend on the researcher’s interests.
2. Behaviours called instincts are not innate but learned, built up from random responses, some of
which are reinforced (retained) and others unreinforced (extinguished).
3. External stimuli cause behaviour and not internal-hypothetical motive states.
Tolman (1923) tried to correct fallacies of instinct theory:
1. Instincts as descriptive labels must specify conditions under which behaviour occurs; naming
instinct does not explain behaviour.
2. No clear criteria for what is instinctive and what is learned; unclear definitions must be
examined.
3. Instincts are not innate ideas or knowledge, as might be suggested by philosophy (e.g. Plato).
4. Resolve confusion around instincts and earned habits.
o Tolman suggested ways to correct instinct concept:
Restructure concept in behavioural terms and not subjective terms
Concentrate on goals to which behaviour is directed; goals are fixed and behaviours may
vary through learning in reaching goals.
Classical Ethology [pg. 39 - 47]
A specialized branch of biology emphasizing the study of instinct, including: appetitive and
consummatory behaviour, fixed action patterns (FAPs), key stimuli, vacuum activity, intention
movements, conflict behaviour, reaction chains, and imprinting.
Ethograms of behaviours for different species based on careful observation of organisms in their
natural habitat are constructed
Categories of Behaviour [pg. 40 - 43]
1. Appetitive Behaviour: Restless, searching, behaviour that is flexible and adaptive.
2. Consummatory Behaviour: Coordinated, fixed patterns of responding to specific stimuli.
3. Action Specific Energy: Each behaviour has its own motive-energy source.
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