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Lecture notes Contract Law LLB - implied and express terms, incorporation and breach
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-Full notes and summaries on implied terms, express terms and their incorporation -Covers breach in brief
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Contract termsImplied terms
-Very common for terms to be implied into a contract, sometimes by statute other times by
courts, for example based on presumed intentions
-Almost all oral and often written contracts will not expressly state every single term involved, a
court cannot ask what a reasonable way of resolving a dispute would be, but it can imply terms
deemed to have been in the bargain all along.
(for example booking a taxi service, its implied but probably not express during booking
that the driver should drive with reasonable care and skill, like he wont take the most
long winded indirect root)
Terms implied by statute
-often imply terms into all contracts of a specified type, to provide protection for contractors who
might not be in a position to negotiate adequate protections for themselves.
-the sale of goods act 1979 and the consumer rights act 2015, imply terms about the quality of
the goods into contracts for the sale of goods.
-Supply of goods and services act 1982 implies terms to hire purchases and for suppliers in a
business service, that the will for example carry them out with reasonable care and skill
-Landlord and tenant act 1985 implies terms such as that the accommodation must be fit for
human habitation
Terms implied at common law
-General principles that apply to all forms of common law implied terms:
-Any implied term must be sufficiently certain (the court will refuse to imply a term which
would be insufficiently certain to be enforced had it been express). Wells v devani (2019)
made it so that a court can possible imply a term in order to give certainty to a contract
and render it enforceable
-A term will not be implied where it would be inconsistent with the express terms of a
contract. Described by lord neuberger in marks & spencer plc v BNP paribas securities
co (2015) as a ‘cardinal rule’ (very important). Bou-Simon v BGC Brokers LP (2018)
made it clear that a judge should not imply a term to reflect the merits of the situation as
they appear at trial, but how they appeared from the perspective of the reasonable
reader of the agreement with knowledge of its content and context.
-The implication of a term is not the end of the story, it must then be decided whether orn
not that term has been breached
-Liverpool city council v irwin [1977], Local authority owned tower block where the
appellants lived, tenancy agreement contained a list of obligations on the tenants,
appellants withheld rent in protest. Tenants claimed for damages because the local
authority had breached its duty to repair and maintain the building. Key question whether
there was any implied term to the effect in absence of an express provision (duty to
repair). Court decided the nature of the contract required this term to be implied but not
on the basis (as the appeal court said) that terms should be implied if its reasonable. The
court said that in this case as the whole point of the contract is to grant possession of the
, flat to the tenant then the maintenance of the staircase/lifts etc is essential to the
functioning of the contract and so a duty to do so is required. Effectively a test of
necessity
Terms to give effect to trade custom
-A term can be implied on the basis of an established custom in a particular market or trade,
that both parties did not bother to spell out but would have understood as self-evident.
Essentially the custom needs to be very well known and reasonable (hutton v warren 1836).
Again terms cannot be implied which are contrary to the express terms (as these would have
not been implied at the time of the agreement)(e Palgrave Brown & Son Ltd v Owners of SS
Turid (1922))
-Garrat v mirror group newspapers (2011), the court applied the ‘certain, notorious and
reasonable’ test to imply a term on established practice within a single commercial organization
not an entire trade or industry
Terms implied ‘in fact’ where necessary to give effect to the parties’ presumed intentions
-Terms implied into individual contracts, focus on establishing the presumed intentions of the
parties judges objectively by looking at words used in the contract and surrounding
circumstances.
-Terms implied ‘in fact’ can only be done where it is strictly necessary.
-What is the test for an implied term to be necessary?
-Overall rule of what is necessary-Attorney General of Belize v Belize Telecom Ltd
(2009) the test is whether an implied term would ‘ ‘would spell out in express words what
the instrument, read against the relevant background, would reasonably be understood
to mean’ and all other tests are different ways of going about this overall test
-Business efficacy test (The moorcock 1889): terms will be implied where necessary to
give business reality to a transaction and create enforceable obligations in
circumstances in which one would expect that business reality and those obligations to
exist. Effectively a term will not be implied unless the contract simply wouldn't work
without it (Liverpool City Council v Irwin (1977)) - a term will be implied where otherwise
the contract would be ‘ ‘futile, inefficacious and absurd’. In marks & spencer it was said
that it is clear the test here is not about what is reasonable but about that which without it
the contract is unworkable or absurd.
-Officious bystander test (Shirlaw v Southern foundries Ltd (1939)): A term that need not
be expressed as it is so obvious that it goes without saying, where a bystander watching
would suggest it and it would be testily suppressed with an ‘oh of course!’. The role of
the bystander is not to determine whether a term should be included but merely bring to
light what the parties understood their contract to mean even if they hadn't spelt it out.
The implied term must represent the implied intentions of Both parties (Spring v National
Amalgamated Stevedores and Dockers Society (1956)
-Generally the courts view is that one of these tests needs to be satisfied (lord neuberger
in marks & spencer)
-Less likely to do so in a detailed contract where it is less likely gaps have been left, and more
likely to do so with oral or skeleton contracts that are simple or vague.
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