The European Union as an External Actor (8910GA007)
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Summary The European Union as an External Actor
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The European Union as an External Actor (8910GA007)
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Universiteit Leiden (UL)
This document contains a concise summary of the course 'The European Union as an external actor' given during the first block of the minor Global Affairs. Good luck with studying!
The European Union as an External Actor (8910GA007)
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Lecture 1: The EU at a critical juncture
EU’s image
● Before the war: EU was a key international actor that could use its economic and diplomatic influence
to stabilize the region and promote its values
● Now: Questions are raised if the EU can manage such a regional crisis? There are several limitations in
dealing with aggressive actions from major powers
● Return to power politics: national interests and the use of military power are prioritized over
international norms or ethical considerations
- Shift in perception: Russia’s aggressive actions signaled the reassertion of power politics in
the European Union
- Impact on EU’s security policy: the EU had to reconsider its security policy (greater defense
integration among MS, stronger ties with key allies, diversification of energy sources)
Is the EU at a critical juncture? → Yes
● Critical juncture= Pivotal moment when significant changes can occur due to events, decisions and
conditions
● Reasons:
1. There are rapid changes and new relations emerging (post-Covid world, new geopolitical
tensions)
2. The confrontation with Russia had pushed the EU to reassess its policies (actorness enabled),
but diverse interests among MS hinder a unified stance (actorness constrained)
3. The US remains a very important ally, because EU is primarily soft power and US primarily
hard power and network power
Changes we can see that are pointing to a critical juncture
● European security and political landscape are undergoing a ‘tectonic shift’ (massive, foundational
change in the landscape of a particular field), as a response to the war in Ukraine
● Europe is at a pivotal moment in its history, a Zeitenwende, we can compare this time to the end of the
Cold War for example
● Europe has a new level of ambition, where member states are aspiring to achieve more in terms of
defense, diplomacy and overall influence in global affairs
● Germany is a prime example of a critical juncture; they are now investing 2% of their GDP in Defense,
this is a significant shift in policy and serves as a reaction to the Russian aggression in Ukraine, NATO
expectations and the deployment of NATO troops on the Eastern flank of Europe
Why is the war in Ukraine a geopolitical complexity?
● According to the EU, the only resolution to this conflict is when Ukraine’s territorial integrity is
restored. Other resolutions to the conflict will be seen as illegitimate.
● The behavior of China during the conflict between Russia and Ukraine will determine the relations
between EU and China for the future. This points to the fact that the EU is watching China’s every
move very closely, to see how they are cooperating with Russia. If this does not appeal to the EU, this
could have very determining consequences for the relationship between the EU and China.
How can the EU strengthen its geopolitical union?
1. Enlargement: the EU can expand its political and economic influence in the Western Balkans, to
stabilize the region and to counter the Russian influence
2. Change decision-making: reduce the requirement of unanimity to make decision-making more effective
(but this could reduce individual state influence) and redistribute the power of the EU’s legislative and
executive branches
3. End unilateral dependencies: end the dependency on energy sources and other materials to make the
EU more resilient and self-reliant
, 4. Defense: make the EU Council serve as a Security Council, establish headquarters by 2025, establish a
united air defense system
Strategic Autonomy
● Definition= the EU’s ability to act independently and make decisions in crucial areas without external
influence or reliance
● 2013-2016: We do not want to rely on others for our own security (developing own defense and
security capabilities)
● 2017-2019: We need to protect ourselves in this uncertain political landscape (developing encompassed
economic, diplomatic and technological capabilities)
● 2019-2022: We need to diversify supply chains so we are not dependent on China (diversifying energy
sources, invest in local industries, reduce EU’s vulnerability to potential economic coercion)
● Strategic autonomy goes beyond the defense and security realm, it also includes health, industry and
cyber
● Autonomy from= to act without any external interference
● Autonomy to= to have the proactive capacity to act in a competitive global environment
● Examples:
- Protection from foreign aggression
- Ensuring a strong and resilient economy
- Maintaining a cutting-edge position in global innovation
- Capacity to lead the green transition
- Protecting EU norms and values
● The EU as a collective should be able to take a unified stance and make impactful decisions.
Strategic Compass
● The EU should not be overly reliant on external powers (NATO & US) for its security and defense, it
should have a more autonomous and definitive defense posture
● The strategic compass is more a guiding tool, indicating a direction based on collective reflection and
consensus
● Relationship to the Global Strategy: the global strategy provides the broader vision of foreign and
security policy, the strategic compass offers a more focused direction especially for defense and
security
● Four core themes:
1. Crisis Management (ACT) → how the EU responds to and manages crises
2. Resilience (SECURE) → strengthening the EU’s resistance against threats
3. Capability Development (INVEST) → enhancing the EU’s defensive capabilities and
infrastructure
4. International Cooperation (PARTNER) → building and strengthening alliances with global
partners
● Critique: due to 27 EU member states with differing interests, the compass is a lot less bolder than it
was intended, it is watered down. representing the lowest common denominator
Challenges to the EU’s capacity to act
1. The EU’s institutional framework and competencies in security and defense are not well-established so
their authority is limited
2. EU’s budget is limited, the EPF was established to finance the union’s external action
3. There is a growing realization that some strategic actors need protection or oversight, ‘qualified
openness’ is used to balance open market principles and strategic protectionism’
4. Overreliance on any partner can pose economic and strategic risks, so the EU is reassessing all their
economic ties and dependencies
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