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Notes for all of psychology a level AQA
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The evolutionary explanations for partner preferences, including the relationshipbetween sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour
● Natural selection is the idea that human behaviour is driven by need to survive and
reproduce. The Evolutionary approaches state that animals are motivated to select
a ‘mate’ with the best possible genes who will best be able to ensure the
offspring’s future health and survival.
● Anisogamy means two sex cells (or gametes) that are different coming together to
reproduce. Men have sperm cells, which are able to reproduce quickly with little
energy expenditure and once they start being produced they do not usually stop until
the man dies.
● Female gametes (eggs or ova) are, in contrast, much less plentiful; they are released
in a limited time frame (between puberty and menopause) and require much more
energy to produce. This difference (anisogamy) means that men and women use
different strategies when choosing their partners.
● Intersexual selection is when one gender makes mate choices based on a specific
characteristic in the other gender, meaning that those with the trait are more likely
to breed and pass the trait and so the number of individuals with this trait in the
population will increase over time. This is typically the strategy of females (due to
high investment cost and parental certainty of children) to pick the highest quality
mate from a wide selection of available mates according to attractive features that
indicate good genes. If they have made a good choice, then their offspring will
inherit the positive features of their father and are therefore also more likely to be
chosen by women or men in the next generation.
● Intrasexual selection- the strategy of males (due to low investment costs and lack
of parental certainty) to compete between themselves for access to a large
quantity of members of the opposite sex. This competition was initially very
physical, favouring large, dominant males who would father most of the offspring
and so increase the frequency of their genes in the gene pool.
● This leads to Male-Female dimorphism, where enhanced secondary characteristics
are selected on each gender by the opposite gender, leading to these becoming
more common in the population.
● Evolutionary psychology suggests that females look for qualities in men that will help
raise a child to adulthood such as resources/money, and physical characteristics
linked to dominance (tall/healthy).
● Evolutionary psychology suggests that males look for signs of fertility that indicate
the production of healthy offspring such as large breasts, youthful facial features
such as big eyes, small nose, small chin (as younger women more fertile), and the
hourglass body shape of a 0.7 waist to hip ratio as this indicates that a female is
sexually mature but not pregnant
Evaluation
★ Clark and Hatfield (1989) conducted a now infamous study where male and female
psychology students were asked to approach fellow students of Florida State University
(of the opposite sex) and ask them for one of three things; to go on a date, to go back to
, their apartment, or to go to bed with them. About 50% of both men and women agreed to
the date, but whilst 69% of men agreed to visit the apartment and 75% agreed to go to
bed with them, only 6% of women agreed to go to the apartment and 0% accepted the
more intimate offer. This supports the concept of inter and intrasexual selection in that
males will attempt to sleep with as many women as possible and women will be more
selective.
★ There is conflict between natural and sexual selection as traits that are selected for
sexually may not aid survival (i.e: peahens select peacocks with the largest tail feathers
to breed with, but these large tail feathers give a disadvantage in survival such as in
terms of escaping from predators).
★ In Dion et al.’s (1972) study, those who were rated to be the most physically attractive
were not rated highly on the statement “Would be a good parent” which could be seen to
contradict theories about inter and intra-sexual selection.
★ The evolutionary approach legitimises a gender double standard between men and
women. Sexual differences may be exaggerated, suggesting alpha bias.
★ Research in this area can be seen as socially sensitive as findings could be used as
justification to shame women for their sexual behaviour.
★ Research by Cunningham (1986) shows that men were most attracted to youthful
faces (big eyes, small noses, small chins), and research by Singh (1993) shows a
cross-cultural preference for a 0.7 hip to waist ratio
★ The evolutionary approach is determinist suggesting that we have little free-will in
partner choice. However, everyday experience tells us we have do some control over
our preferences.
★ Finally, evolutionary theory makes little attempt to explain other types of relationships,
e.g. gay and lesbian relationships, and cultural variations in relationships which exist
across the world, e.g. arranged marriages.
Factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships: self-disclosure; physical
attractiveness, including the matching hypothesis; filter theory, including social
demography, similarity in attitudes and complementarity
Attraction is the action of evoking interest in or liking for someone or something
Self disclosure
Self disclosure is when an individual reveals information about themselves to another
person. People tend to disclose more information to those we like and like people who
reveal information about themselves more. This is thought to be an indication of trust that
information will stay between individuals.
● Social penetration theory- Altman and Taylor suggests that as a relationship between
individuals develops the breadth and depth of interpersonal communication
increases from shallow levels to become more intimate.
● Breadth is the types of topics that are discussed (certain areas not appropriate until a
certain level of friendship is established).
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